The Nagas are a group of tribal people inhabiting the Indian state of Nagaland, parts of Manipur, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh and the northwestern hill tracks of Myanmar such as the Sagaing Division. The numerous Naga languages (sometimes classified as dialects) belong to the Tibeto-Burman languages group of the Sino-Tibetan languages family. Nagas traditionally are tribally organized, with a strong warrior tradition. Their villages are sited on hilltops and till the later part of the 19th century, they make frequent armed raids on the plains below. Although the tribes do not form a homogeneous group considering the diversity in their language and traditions, they have many similarities in their culture which set them apart from the neighbouring occupants of the region. The Nagas today number around 4 million in population.
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History
Early history
There is no scholarly consensus regarding the early origins of the Nagas and very little is known of the Mongoloid groups whose southwesterly migration brought them to the sub Himalayan region of north-eastern India and north-western Myanmar. These tribes speak Tibeto-Burman dialects and it is probable that their original homeland was in the region between the Huang Ho and Yangtze (Ch'ang) rivers in northwestern China and that they came in successive waves of migration spreading over centuries.[1]
Although the presence of mongoloid groups in the region had been attested as early as 10 B.C. the Nagas had maintained little outside contact till the later part of the 13th century. Their existence was mentioned by Ptolemy in about 15O A.D. [2] Oral traditions abound among the many tribes regarding how they came, dispersed etc. but such accounts are steeped in myth and superstition and hence no concrete facts about their arrival to the region can emerge.
Curious coincidences of culture and language through the Pacific led some scholars to suggest that the Nagas were an off-shoot of groups which had originally descended from the central Asian plateau. Their burial customs, ornamentation, agricultural practices and even games and crafts, linked them strongly to the tribal peoples of Borneo and the Philippines.[2]
Contact with the outside world
Apart from cultural contacts with the neighbouring Ahoms, the rulers of Assam from 1228, the Nagas had little or no contact with the outside world. Real exposure to the outside world came with the British annexation of Assam in 1828 following the Treaty of Yandabo. In the 1830s the British sent expeditionary forces and in 1845 the colonial power succeeded in concluding a non-aggression pact with Naga Chiefs who used to attack the bordering areas in Assam. But the Nagas violated the agreement time and again and their war and peace tactics continued.[3]
Since the 1830s, the attempts by the British to annex the region were met with sustained and effective guerrilla resistance from Naga groups, particularly the Angami Naga tribe. The British followed up with many military expedition till 1851 amidst continuing guerrilla warfare by the tribals and they succeeded in setting up military posts in some areas. The conflict culminated in 1878 when the Angamis mounted raids on British camps. The response was brutal with the burning of several rebel villages by the British forces. The resistance met with failure and eventually the region became administered by the British.[4]
The advent of Christianity
An important landmark in the history of the Nagas with considerable social, cultural and political ramifications is the arrival of missionaries and the spread of Christianity among the Nagas. The acceptance of Christianity marks a departure from their many tribal customs and traditions, and along with the spread of English education, heralds the arrival of modernity in the Naga hills. The first missionary to arrive the Naga hills is believed to be Rev. Miles Bronson in 1841 although he stayed only for a short period. In the 1870s, Dr. & Mrs. E.W. Clark worked among the Ao people and with the help of Mr.Godhula, an Assamese Christian, established the first Church in Molungkimong in 1872.[5]
Rev. William Pettigrew, a Scottish missionary arrived in Ukhrul in 1895 and got the permission to open a mission school from Raihao, the chief of Hunphun. Pettigrew's efforts included translating the Bible and Christian hymnals into the Hunphun dialect which resulted in the dialect becoming the lingua franca among the Tangkhuls.[6] Likewise the missionaries served as an agent in forging a greater "Naga" identity which is a radical departure from the age old set up of warring village republics. The dreaded custom of head hunting slowly declined and disappeared as more and more Nagas embraced Christianity in the early 20th century. Today, more than 95% of Nagas claim to be Christians. Christianity has changed the Naga society entirely and it bears little semblance to the tribal society that it was a century ago. The Christian missionaries interfered in the social and cultural practices to a far greater extent than the government. The new educational system and religion disrupted the indigenous pattern of life as both the British administration and the Christian missionaries made the Nagas discard their age old social patterns, cultural practices and traditional political setup without providing functional substitutes.[7]
Resistance and struggle for identity
From the arrival of the British till date, the Naga hills have been an area of constant strife and turmoil. The Nagas are a fiercely independent people and they have resisted any incursions into their territories using brute force. The dawn of a spirit of nationalism and a common identity, however, are relatively new concepts among the Nagas. This is because, to the Nagas, every village is a republic, free from all outside domination and their desire had been to preserve the status quo. With the coming of modern education, the politicization of Naga ethnicity began. The first instance was the formation of the Naga Club in 1918 by a group of educated Nagas. The club submitted a memorandum to the Simon Commission in 1929 with the demand that "Nagas should not be included within the Reformed Scheme of India"[8]
After India's independence from the British rule, the Nagas were the first ethnic group from north east India to rise up against accession to India. The legendary Naga leader Zapu Phizo spearheaded the initial movement with the Naga National Council (NNC). In the dying days of the British, hectic parleys were led by him for a sovereign Naga nation. Consequently, in June 1947, a 9 point agreement was signed which promised bringing the Nagas under a single administrative unit and the Nagas' right to self determination after 10 years. However, disputes arose over the interpretation of the agreement, and many in the NNC opposed it.[9] Under Phizo, the Nagas declared their independence from the British on the 14th August, 1947, a day before India. In May 1951, the NNC claimed that 99 per cent of the Nagas supported a referendum to secede from India which was summarily rejected by New Delhi. By 1952, the NNC led a guerilla movement which resulted in a violent crackdown by India's armed forces. Phizo escaped from region through East Pakistan and went on an exile to London where he inspired the movement till his death in 1990.[10]
Statehood, factions and ceasefires
In 1960, the Naga People's Convention (formed in 1957 supposedly as a people's forum but dubbed by Naga groups as India's creation) signed a 16 point agreement with the Indian Government through which statehood was granted to Nagaland in 1963. The agreement was condemned as the greatest betrayal in Naga history as through it the Indian Government declared that the Naga political issue had been amicably settled.[11] The formation of Nagaland effectively divided the Nagas into four administrative states within India.
A ceasefire was signed between the NNC and the Indian Government and they had six rounds of talks till 1972 with no real progress. The first ceasefire and talks broke down in 1972 when an assassination attempt was made on the Chief Minister of the state. In November 1975, a delegation of the NNC signed the infamous Shillong Accord through which the revolutionaries agreed to unconditional acceptance of the Indian Constitution and surrender of arms. The accord was condemned by many Nagas and it marked the beginning of factionalism among the revolutionaries. An immediate repercussion was the formation of the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) in the late 1970s by Thuingaleng Muivah, Isaac Swu and S.Khaplang. The NSCN later splintered into two with the breaking away of Khaplang. The 1990s was marked by fratricidal violence between the revolutionary groups. The mid 1990s was a time of turmoil in the Naga hills especially around Manipur as ethnic violence erupted between the Nagas and Kukis resulting in scores of villages being burned, inflicting hundreds of casualties on both sides.
On January 23 1993, the NSCN(IM) was admitted to the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO), which was seen then as a step towards gaining more international attention to the Naga issue. In 1997, the NSCN(IM) signed a ceasefire with the Indian Government and negotiations continue till date. Recent trends in talks indicate that the NSCN(IM) have mellowed on their demand for sovereignty and instead strengthened the demand for autonomy and unification of all Naga areas in Manipur, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh with Nagaland[12] which triggered strong protests in Manipur. According to the UNPO, the biggest impediment in the peace process, as the NSCN sees it, is the refusal of the Government of India to officialy extend the ceasefire to all Naga-inhabited areas outside of Nagaland.[13] The Indian Government has shown little enthusiasm in solving the Naga issue considering the fact that little progress has been made in the last 12 years of talks. On the other hand, there have been allegations of the Indian Army's continuing high handedness upon civilians.
Society
The Nagas are a simple, straight forward, hard working and honest people with a high standard of integrity. They have a strong sense of self respect and rarely submit to anyone who roughshods over them. A hallmark of their character is their hospitality and cheerfulness. The Nagas have an egalitarian society, and the village is a closely knit unit consisting of households of different clans.
The village
Nagas traditionally live in villages. The village is a well defined entity with distinct land demarcation from neighbouring villages. Each has a dialect of its own and as such there is a strong sense of social solidarity within it. The people in it are held together by social, economic, political and ritual ties. The villages have their own identity but not in isolation as there are interdependent relationships with neighbouring villages. [14] The impact of modernization is slowly but steadily eroding the centrality of villages as a social unit as large commercial towns are rapidly coming up in every region of the Naga hills. This is bringing about drastic changes in the values, lifestyles and social setup of the Nagas.
The family
The family is the basic unit of the Naga society. Marriages are usually monogamous and fidelity to the spouse is considered a high virtue. Marriage within the same clan is not permitted and it amounts to incest. Incestuous couples are ostracised from the villages. The family is the most important institution of social education and social control. There is a deep respect for parents and elders. Material inheritance such as land and cattle are passed on to the male offspring with the eldest son receiving the largest share.
Status of women
In the classless, casteless Naga society, women have traditionally enjoyed a high social position, with a pivotal role in both family and community affairs. However, being a patriachal society with strong warrior tradition, it is considered an honour to be born as a man. The traditional culture and customs "expect" a Naga woman to be obedient and humble; also expect her to perform the roles of wife, mother, child bearer, food producer and household manager. She also supplements the household income by weaving colourful shawls, an activity which is done exclusively by women.[15] Women are highly respected and given a great deal of freedom, however, they are traditionally not included in decision making process of the clan or the village.
The Morung system
The Morung or the bachelor dormitory system used to be an essential part of Naga life. Apart from the family, it was the most important educational set up of the Nagas. The Morungs are grant buildings, constructed at the village entrance or a spot from where the village can be guarded most effectively. On attaining the age of puberty, young boys and girls were admitted to their respective dormitories. The Naga culture, customs and traditions which were transmitted from generation to generation through folk music and dance, folk tales and oral tradition, wood carving and weaving, were conveyed to the young in the Morungs.[16] Announcements of meetings, death of a villager, warnings of impending dangers etc. are made from the morungs with the beating of log drums. With the onset of modernity, the morung system is no longer in practice among the Nagas.
Headhunting
One of the most striking social characteristics of the Nagas was the practice of headhunting. Alva Bowers described the Naga hills as the "paradise of headhunters"[17] Most villages had a skull house and each man in the village is expected to contribute to the collection. The taking of a head is symbolic of courage and men who could not were dubbed as women or cows. There is nothing more glorious for a Naga than victory in battle by bringing home the severed head of an enemy.[18] There is however, no indication of cannibalism among the Nagas. This practice is now entirely eradicated with the spread of modern education and Christianity in the region.
Transformation and challenges
The Naga society is undergoing tremendous transformation. The spread of Christianity, the growth of education and developmental programmes undertaken by the government have all unleashed forces which are churning up the tribal society and rapidly changing its complexion and character. The modern set up of detached nuclear families is fast catching up with the Nagas as they have greater intercourse with the modern world. This is leading to the erosion of the role of the clan and the village as agents of social control.
Culture
Art and craft
The Nagas are expert craftsmen. Their dwellings are made of wood and straw and these are ornately carved and arranged. Each tribe has a unique way of constructing their huts. A common thing about all the tribes is that they decorate the entrances of their dwellings with heads of buffaloes. The Nagas love colour and this is evident in their colourfully designed shawls and headgears. Here again, the designs on the costumes are unique to each tribe.
According to Dr.Verrier Elwin, the arts and crafts of the Nagas reflect their self sufficient lifestyle - “they have made their own cloth, their own hats and rain-coats; they have prepared their own medicines, their own cooking-vessels, their own substitutes for crockery.“ [19]. The various craftwork done by the Nagas include basketry, weaving, wood carving, pottery, metal work, jewellery and beadwork.
Weaving of colourful woolen and cotton shawls is a central activity for women of all Naga tribes. One of the common features of Naga shawl is that three pieces are woven separately and stitched together. Weaving is an intricate and time consuming work and each shawl takes at least a few days to complete. Designs for shawls and wraparounds (commonly called meghala) are different for men and women. Among many tribes the design of the shawl denotes the social status of the wearer. Some of the more known shawls include Tsungkotepsu and Rongsu of the Ao tribe; Sutam, Ethasu, Longpensu of the Lothas; Haoro, Changkhom and Raivat of the Tangkhuls; Supong of the Sangtams, Rongkhim and Tsungrem Khim of the Yimchungers; the Angami Lohe shawls with thick embroidered animal motifs etc. [20]
The Indian Chamber of Commerce has filed an application seeking registration of traditional Naga shawls made in Nagaland with the Geographical Registry of India for Geographical Indication.[21]
Folk song and dance
Folk songs and dances are essential ingredients of the traditional Naga culture. The oral tradition is kept alive through the media of folk tales and songs. Naga folks songs are both romantic and historical, with songs narrating entire stories of famous ancestors and incidents. There are also seasonal songs which describe various activities done in a particular agricultural season. The early western missionaries opposed the use of folk songs by Naga Christians as they are perceived to be associated with spirit worship, war and immorality. As a result translated versions of western hymns were introduced leading to the slow disappearance of indigenous music from the Naga hills. [22]
Folk dances of the Nagas are mostly performed in groups in synchronised fashion by both men and women depending on the type of the dance. Dances are usually performed in festivals and religious occasions. War dances are performed mostly by men and are athletic and martial in style. All dances are accompanied by songs and war cries by the dancers themselves. The various indigenous musical instruments used by the Nagas are bamboo mouth organs, cup violins, bamboo flutes, trumpets, drums made of cattle skin, and log drums.[23]
List of Naga tribes
The Nagas are divided into more than 30 tribes: (List not exhaustive)
- Angami
- Ao
- Chakhesang
- Chang
- Khiamniungan
- Konyak
- Liangmei
- Lotha
- Phom
- Pochuri
- Mao
- Maram
- Nocte
- Poumai
- Rengma
- Rongmei
- Inpui Naga
- Sangtam
- Sumi
- Tangkhul
- Tangsa
- Tutsa
- Wancho
- Yimchunger
- Zemei
- Zeliangrong[24]
Notes and References
- ^ http://www.everyculture.com/South-Asia/Nagas-History-and-Cultural-Relations.html Retrieved on 15th June 2009
- ^ a b http://www.alanmacfarlane.com/bamboo_naga_front/T11a.htm Retrieved on 16th June 2009
- ^ R.Upadhyay, Naga Insurgency - A confusion of war or peace, Paper no. 1256, 17. 02. 2005, Southasiaanalysis.org
- ^ mamguis: Consolidation of British Powers in the Naga Hills http://mamguis.blogspot.com/2009/04/consolidation-of-british-powers-in-naga.html Retrieved on 16th June 2009
- ^ CBCNEI: Naga Baptist Church Council http://cbcnei.com/members.htm Retrieved on 17th June 2009
- ^ U A Shimray, Education in Tangkhul Nagas Region http://www.kanglaonline.com/index.php?template=kshow&kid=704 Retrieved on 17th June 2009
- ^ Inato Yekheto Shikhu, A Re-discovery and Re-building of Naga Cultural Values: An Analytical Approach with Special Reference to Maori as a Colonised and Minority Group of People in New Zealand (Daya Books, 2007) Page 77
- ^ K Prongo, Dawning Of Truth To Crown Indo-Naga Talks, ManipurOnline, September 22, 2002
- ^ Murkot Ramunny, The ceasefire with the Nagas, The Hindu, July 04, 2001
- ^ Syed Ali Mujtaba, Ph.D, Nagaland peace talks still elusive, http://www.globalpolitician.com/22018-india Retrieved on 18th June 2009
- ^ Kaka D. Iralu, 16 Point Agreement: The Greatest Betrayal In Naga History, http://www.manipuronline.com/features/February2003/greatestbetrayal25_2.htm Retrieved 18th June 2009
- ^ R Radhakrishnan, The Naga Peace Talks: Some Glimmer Of Hope, ManipurOnline January 28, 2003
- ^ UNPO.org, Nagalim, http://www.unpo.org/content/view/7899/131/ Retrieved on 25th September, 2009
- ^ U A Shimray, Equality as tradition, Economic and Political Weekly, February 2 2002
- ^ U A Shimray, Naga Women’s Intervention, December 22, 2004, ManipurOnline
- ^ Dr. Tuisem A. Shishak, Nagas and Education, Nagalim page on Angelfire Retrieved 19th June 2009
- ^ A. C. Bowers, Under Headhunters’ Eyes (Philadelphia: Judson Press, 1929), Page 195
- ^ David Meren Jamir, A Study on Nagaland, A Theology of Justice in Cross-Cultural Mission (Lombard, Il: Bethany Theological Seminary, 1986)
- ^ Arts and crafts of the Nagas, http://nagaland.nic.in/profile/arts/arts.htm Retrieved 23rd June 2009
- ^ Nagaland Shawls, http://www.shawlstrade.com/nagaland-shawls.html Retrieved on July 26, 2009
- ^ Naga shawls in for geographical registration, AndhraNews.net, April 7, 2008
- ^ Inato Yekheto Shikhu, A Re-discovery and Re-building of Naga Cultural Values: An Analytical Approach with Special Reference to Maori as a Colonised and Minority Group of People in New Zealand (Daya Books, 2007) Page 210
- ^ Kajen Mongro & A. Lanunungsang Ao, Naga cultural attires and musical instruments (Concept Publishing Company, 1999), ISBN 8170227933
- ^ Zeliangrong is a composite term of three smaller tribes viz. Zemei, Liangmei and Rongmei
Further Reading
- Stirn, Aglaja & Peter van Ham. The Hidden world of the Naga: Living Traditions in Northeast India. London: Prestel.
- Oppitz, Michael, Thomas Kaiser, Alban von Stockhausen & Marion Wettstein. 2008. Naga Identities: Changing Local Cultures in the Northeast of India. Gent: Snoeck Publishers.
- Kunz, Richard & Vibha Joshi. 2008. Naga – A Forgotten Mountain Region Rediscovered. Basel: Merian.
External links
- Official site of Nagaland state government
- Photos of Nagas in Burma by Goto Osami
- Photos of Nagas by Pablo Bartholomew
- Dossier of Nagas
- Traditional Costume of Tribal India - Bibliography
- Naga Tribes of Myanmar (Burma) - Photo gallery
- Interview with Ursula Graham Bower
- How the Nagas Became Christians
- Sinlung Sinlung - Naga Tribes
- Photos of Nagas from the Völkerkundemuseum Zurich
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