Northern Spotted Owl
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Northern Spotted Owl
Strix occidentalis caurina
Description
The northern spotted owl, one of three spotted owl subspecies, is a medium-sized owl with a round head, dark brown plumage, and dark eyes. It has white spots on the head and neck and white mottling on the breast and abdomen. The female is slightly larger than the male and has a higher pitched call. Juveniles go through a series of downy plumages in their first summer; afterwards they are distinguishable from adults only by ragged white downy tips on their tail feathers.
The northern spotted owl is distinguished from the two other subspecies—the California spotted owl (Strix occidentalis occidentalis) and the Mexican spotted owl (S. o. lucida)—by slight differences in plumage and their respective geographic ranges. The Mexican spotted owl was proposed for listing as threatened in November 1991.
Behavior
The northern spotted owl inhabits a relatively large home range, which it uses for nesting, foraging, and roosting. It usually spends the entire year on its territory.
Like most other owls, it is primarily nocturnal, swooping down from perches to take prey. Its diet consists mostly of small mammals, but also includes birds, reptiles, and insects. The most important prey are flying squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus), red tree voles (Arborimus longicaudus), and dusky-footed woodrats (Neotoma fuscipes).
Owl pairs do not nest every year, and not all nesting attempts are successful. It is believed that nesting patterns may be related to local prey availability. Nesting behavior begins in February and March, and nests are located almost exclusively in tree cavities or platforms. Pairs do not build their own nest but use cavities at the broken tops of old-growth conifers, nests built by other birds or mammals, and naturally occurring platforms. Females lay a clutch of two eggs in March or early April, and incubate them for about 32 days. The male feeds the female and young during incubation and brooding. The young leave the nest after about a month and remain near the nest where they are fed by the adults until early fall. The young disperse in September or October.
Young northern spotted owls have a much higher mortality rate than adult birds. Studies have found that only about 19% survived their first year. The principal causes of juvenile death appeared to be starvation and predation by great horned owls.
Habitat
The northern spotted owl inhabits old-growth forests or mixed stands of old-growth and mature trees. Pairs establish extensive territories, which are used for nesting, foraging, and roosting. The sub-species is occasionally found in younger forests that have remnant patches of large trees or scattered individual large trees. Old-growth forests possess a combination of characteristics required by the owl: a high, multistory canopy dominated by large trees; numerous trees with cavities or broken tops; woody debris or fallen trees; and open space beneath the canopy for flying.
The size of a pair's home range varies across the subspecies' geographical distribution. The median size of a pair's home range is about 10,000 acres (4,050 hectares) for the Olympic Peninsula; 6,300 acres (2,550 hectares) for the Washington Cascades; 3,000 acres (1,200 hectares) for the Oregon Cascades; 4,800 acres (1,950 hectares) for the Oregon Coast Range; and 3,300 acres (1,350 hectares) for the Klamath Provence.
Distribution
The precise historic range of the northern spotted owl cannot be known with certainty. Early European settlers began cutting the old-growth forests, particularly in coastal and foothill areas, before the owl's range was determined. Researchers generally believe that the owl inhabited all suitable habitat from southern British Columbia to northern California. There are no historic population estimates.
Northern spotted owls are found in what old-growth forest remains throughout the subspecies' historic range. By the late twentieth century, most privately owned old-growth forest had been cut; approximately 90% of the remaining old-growth forest was on federal land managed by the U. S. Forest Service, U. S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM), and the National Park Service. The early twenty-first century range was from southwestern British Columbia, south through western Washington, western Oregon, and northern California to near San Francisco Bay. The southern boundary that separated the northern spotted owl from the California spotted owl was the Pit River area of Shasta County, California.
Northern spotted owls were not uniformly distributed throughout this range. Most inhabited the Cascades in Oregon and the Klamath Mountains of southwestern Oregon and northwestern California. Densities were lowest in northern Washington, southern British Columbia, and northeastern California. Approximately 2,000 breeding pairs were known, and the total population was estimated to number between 3,000 and 5,000 pairs.
Threats
The principal threat to the northern spotted owl is the ongoing reduction of its old-growth forest habitat through logging. Nearly all privately owned old-growth forest has already been cut in the Pacific Northwest, and suitable spotted owl habitat is almost completely confined to federal land. Conflict over forest management practices to conserve the spotted owl date to at least the mid-1970s when wildlife officials in Oregon, in concert with federal scientists, attempted to establish a state management plan for the subspecies.
Conservations And Recovery
The decision to list the northern spotted owl and institute a conservation plan has generated more controversy than any other action taken under the Endangered Species Act in several decades. Citing a threat to the regional economy, companies, organizations, and localities dependent on the timber industry vigorously opposed any action that would reduce the timber cut on federal land in the Pacific Northwest. A coalition of environmental organizations and independent and government scientists has been equally vigorous in pressing for additional protection for the region's old-growth forests which serve as the owl's habitat.
Following a January 1987 petition from a private conservation organization to list the owl, the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) determined in December 1987 that listing the owl was not warranted. The Sierra Club Legal Defense Fund then challenged that decision by filing a lawsuit against the FWS in the U. S. District Court for the Western District of Washington (Northern Spotted Owl v. Hodel, no. C88-573Z). On November 17, 1988, the court found that FWS's failure to list the northern spotted owl was "arbitrary and capricious or contrary to law" and directed the service to reconsider its decision. Following this judicial rebuke, the FWS organized a special listing review team to evaluate the scientific evidence concerning the threat to the owl. In June 1989, the FWS proposed that the northern spotted owl be listed as threatened. The listing was made final on June 26, 1990. Meanwhile the controversy between timber interests and environmentalists had escalated into a major political debate over the health of the local economy versus conservation of the owl and its old-growth forest habitat.
In 1989, while the listing proposal was under consideration, an interagency scientific committee was established to develop a conservation plan for the owl. On April 2, 1990, it issued a report, "A Conservation Strategy for the Northern Spotted Owl" (popularly known as he "Jack Ward Thomas Report," after the committee's chairman). This report recommended the establishment of habitat conservation areas on nearly eight million acres (3.2 million hectares) of federal land throughout the owl's range. The conservation plan called for a network of individual reserves, each large enough to support a minimum of 20 pairs of owls. No logging would be allowed on these reserves, and a strict timber management policy would apply on federal land connecting the conservation areas.
In February 1991, the FWS was ordered by the U. S. district court presiding over Northern Spotted Owl v. Hodel to designate critical habitat for the owl. On May 6, FWS proposed a network of critical habitat areas totaling more than 11 million acres (4.5 million hectares) of federal, state, and private land in Washington, Oregon, and California. These areas were largely based on the habitat conservation areas mapped in the Jack Ward Thomas Report. On August 13, 1991, the FWS revised its proposal to include only federal and state land. It proposed that approximately 8.2 million acres (3.3 million hectares) be designated as critical habitat. The final determination was made on January 9, 1992, when the FWS announced that critical habitat for the owl would encompass approximately 6.9 million acres (2.8 million hectares) of federal land.
The listing of the northern spotted owl as threatened and the determination of its critical habitat has hardly ended the political or legal struggle. On May 23, 1991, a U. S. district judge ordered the suspension of timber sales in the national forests of the Pacific Northwest until the Forest Service produced an effective protection plan for the northern spotted owl.
And on September 30, 1991, Secretary of the Interior Manuel Lujan decided to convene the Endangered Species Committee, sometimes known as the "God Committee," to consider a BLM request for an exemption from the Endangered Species Act. The BLM was seeking permission to sell timber from about 4,000 acres (1,600 hectares) of northern spotted owl habitat. While this was only a small portion of the owl's critical habitat, proponents of protecting the owl regarded this as the first step in a campaign to weaken the provisions of the Endangered Species Act.
Contacts
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Regional Office, Division of Endangered Species
Eastside Federal Complex
911 N. E. 11th Ave.
Portland, Oregon 97232-4181
Telephone: (503) 231-6121
http://pacific.fws.gov/
References
Forsman, E., and E. C. Meslow. 1986. "The Spotted Owl." In Audubon Wildlife Report 1986. Academic Press, San Diego.
Thomas, J. W., et al. 1990. "A Conservation Strategy for the Northern Spotted Owl." U. S. Department of Agriculture, U. S. Forest Service, U. S. Department of the Interior, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Bureau of Land Management, and National Park Service, Portland.
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 9 January 1992. "Determination of Critical Habitat for the Northern Spotted Owl." Federal Register 57.
| Status | |
| Listed | |
| Family | |
| Description | |
| Habitat | |
| Food | |
| Reproduction | |
| Threats | |
| Range |
The northern spotted owl, one of three spotted owl subspecies, is a medium-sized owl with a round head, dark brown plumage, and dark eyes. It has white spots on the head and neck and white mottling on the breast and abdomen. The female is slightly larger than the male and has a higher pitched call. Juveniles go through a series of downy plumages in their first summer; afterwards they are distinguishable from adults only by ragged white downy tips on their tail feathers.
The northern spotted owl is distinguished from the two other subspecies—the California spotted owl (Strix occidentalis occidentalis) and the Mexican spotted owl (S. o. lucida)—by slight differences in plumage and their respective geographic ranges. The Mexican spotted owl was proposed for listing as threatened in November 1991.
Behavior
The northern spotted owl inhabits a relatively large home range, which it uses for nesting, foraging, and roosting. It usually spends the entire year on its territory.
Like most other owls, it is primarily nocturnal, swooping down from perches to take prey. Its diet consists mostly of small mammals, but also includes birds, reptiles, and insects. The most important prey are flying squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus), red tree voles (Arborimus longicaudus), and dusky-footed woodrats (Neotoma fuscipes).
Owl pairs do not nest every year, and not all nesting attempts are successful. It is believed that nesting patterns may be related to local prey availability. Nesting behavior begins in February and March, and nests are located almost exclusively in tree cavities or platforms. Pairs do not build their own nest but use cavities at the broken tops of old-growth conifers, nests built by other birds or mammals, and naturally occurring platforms. Females lay a clutch of two eggs in March or early April, and incubate them for about 32 days. The male feeds the female and young during incubation and brooding. The young leave the nest after about a month and remain near the nest where they are fed by the adults until early fall. The young disperse in September or October.
Young northern spotted owls have a much higher mortality rate than adult birds. Studies have found that only about 19% survived their first year. The principal causes of juvenile death appeared to be starvation and predation by great horned owls.
Habitat
The northern spotted owl inhabits old-growth forests or mixed stands of old-growth and mature trees. Pairs establish extensive territories, which are used for nesting, foraging, and roosting. The sub-species is occasionally found in younger forests that have remnant patches of large trees or scattered individual large trees. Old-growth forests possess a combination of characteristics required by the owl: a high, multistory canopy dominated by large trees; numerous trees with cavities or broken tops; woody debris or fallen trees; and open space beneath the canopy for flying.
The size of a pair's home range varies across the subspecies' geographical distribution. The median size of a pair's home range is about 10,000 acres (4,050 hectares) for the Olympic Peninsula; 6,300 acres (2,550 hectares) for the Washington Cascades; 3,000 acres (1,200 hectares) for the Oregon Cascades; 4,800 acres (1,950 hectares) for the Oregon Coast Range; and 3,300 acres (1,350 hectares) for the Klamath Provence.
Distribution
The precise historic range of the northern spotted owl cannot be known with certainty. Early European settlers began cutting the old-growth forests, particularly in coastal and foothill areas, before the owl's range was determined. Researchers generally believe that the owl inhabited all suitable habitat from southern British Columbia to northern California. There are no historic population estimates.
Northern spotted owls are found in what old-growth forest remains throughout the subspecies' historic range. By the late twentieth century, most privately owned old-growth forest had been cut; approximately 90% of the remaining old-growth forest was on federal land managed by the U. S. Forest Service, U. S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM), and the National Park Service. The early twenty-first century range was from southwestern British Columbia, south through western Washington, western Oregon, and northern California to near San Francisco Bay. The southern boundary that separated the northern spotted owl from the California spotted owl was the Pit River area of Shasta County, California.
Northern spotted owls were not uniformly distributed throughout this range. Most inhabited the Cascades in Oregon and the Klamath Mountains of southwestern Oregon and northwestern California. Densities were lowest in northern Washington, southern British Columbia, and northeastern California. Approximately 2,000 breeding pairs were known, and the total population was estimated to number between 3,000 and 5,000 pairs.
Threats
The principal threat to the northern spotted owl is the ongoing reduction of its old-growth forest habitat through logging. Nearly all privately owned old-growth forest has already been cut in the Pacific Northwest, and suitable spotted owl habitat is almost completely confined to federal land. Conflict over forest management practices to conserve the spotted owl date to at least the mid-1970s when wildlife officials in Oregon, in concert with federal scientists, attempted to establish a state management plan for the subspecies.
Conservations And Recovery
The decision to list the northern spotted owl and institute a conservation plan has generated more controversy than any other action taken under the Endangered Species Act in several decades. Citing a threat to the regional economy, companies, organizations, and localities dependent on the timber industry vigorously opposed any action that would reduce the timber cut on federal land in the Pacific Northwest. A coalition of environmental organizations and independent and government scientists has been equally vigorous in pressing for additional protection for the region's old-growth forests which serve as the owl's habitat.
Following a January 1987 petition from a private conservation organization to list the owl, the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) determined in December 1987 that listing the owl was not warranted. The Sierra Club Legal Defense Fund then challenged that decision by filing a lawsuit against the FWS in the U. S. District Court for the Western District of Washington (Northern Spotted Owl v. Hodel, no. C88-573Z). On November 17, 1988, the court found that FWS's failure to list the northern spotted owl was "arbitrary and capricious or contrary to law" and directed the service to reconsider its decision. Following this judicial rebuke, the FWS organized a special listing review team to evaluate the scientific evidence concerning the threat to the owl. In June 1989, the FWS proposed that the northern spotted owl be listed as threatened. The listing was made final on June 26, 1990. Meanwhile the controversy between timber interests and environmentalists had escalated into a major political debate over the health of the local economy versus conservation of the owl and its old-growth forest habitat.
In 1989, while the listing proposal was under consideration, an interagency scientific committee was established to develop a conservation plan for the owl. On April 2, 1990, it issued a report, "A Conservation Strategy for the Northern Spotted Owl" (popularly known as he "Jack Ward Thomas Report," after the committee's chairman). This report recommended the establishment of habitat conservation areas on nearly eight million acres (3.2 million hectares) of federal land throughout the owl's range. The conservation plan called for a network of individual reserves, each large enough to support a minimum of 20 pairs of owls. No logging would be allowed on these reserves, and a strict timber management policy would apply on federal land connecting the conservation areas.
In February 1991, the FWS was ordered by the U. S. district court presiding over Northern Spotted Owl v. Hodel to designate critical habitat for the owl. On May 6, FWS proposed a network of critical habitat areas totaling more than 11 million acres (4.5 million hectares) of federal, state, and private land in Washington, Oregon, and California. These areas were largely based on the habitat conservation areas mapped in the Jack Ward Thomas Report. On August 13, 1991, the FWS revised its proposal to include only federal and state land. It proposed that approximately 8.2 million acres (3.3 million hectares) be designated as critical habitat. The final determination was made on January 9, 1992, when the FWS announced that critical habitat for the owl would encompass approximately 6.9 million acres (2.8 million hectares) of federal land.
The listing of the northern spotted owl as threatened and the determination of its critical habitat has hardly ended the political or legal struggle. On May 23, 1991, a U. S. district judge ordered the suspension of timber sales in the national forests of the Pacific Northwest until the Forest Service produced an effective protection plan for the northern spotted owl.
And on September 30, 1991, Secretary of the Interior Manuel Lujan decided to convene the Endangered Species Committee, sometimes known as the "God Committee," to consider a BLM request for an exemption from the Endangered Species Act. The BLM was seeking permission to sell timber from about 4,000 acres (1,600 hectares) of northern spotted owl habitat. While this was only a small portion of the owl's critical habitat, proponents of protecting the owl regarded this as the first step in a campaign to weaken the provisions of the Endangered Species Act.
Contacts
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Regional Office, Division of Endangered Species
Eastside Federal Complex
911 N. E. 11th Ave.
Portland, Oregon 97232-4181
Telephone: (503) 231-6121
http://pacific.fws.gov/
References
Forsman, E., and E. C. Meslow. 1986. "The Spotted Owl." In Audubon Wildlife Report 1986. Academic Press, San Diego.
Thomas, J. W., et al. 1990. "A Conservation Strategy for the Northern Spotted Owl." U. S. Department of Agriculture, U. S. Forest Service, U. S. Department of the Interior, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Bureau of Land Management, and National Park Service, Portland.
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 9 January 1992. "Determination of Critical Habitat for the Northern Spotted Owl." Federal Register 57.
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Northern Spotted Owl
Wikipedia on Answers.com:
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Northern Spotted Owl
| Northern Spotted Owl | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Aves |
| Order: | Strigiformesa |
| Family: | Strigidae |
| Genus: | Strix |
| Species: | S. occidentalis |
| Subspecies: | S. o. caurina |
| Trinomial name | |
| Strix occidentalis caurina |
|
The Northern Spotted Owl, Strix occidentalis caurina, is one of three Spotted Owl subspecies. A Western North American bird in the family Strigidae, genus Strix, it is a medium-sized dark brown owl sixteen to nineteen inches in length and one to one and one sixth pounds. Females are larger than males. The wingspan is approximately forty two inches.
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Contents
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Habitat
The Northern Spotted Owl primarily inhabits old growth forests in the northern part of its range (Canada to southern Oregon) and landscapes with a mix of old and younger forest types in the southern part of its range (Klamath region and California) . The species' range is the Pacific coast from extreme southern British Columbia to Marin County in northern California. It nests in cavities or on platforms in large trees and will use abandoned nests of other species. Spotted owls form long-term pair bonds (divorce is not an uncommon occurrence) and remain in the same geographical areas year after year.
Most Spotted Owls occur on US federal lands (Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, and National Park Service lands), although significant numbers occur on state lands in all three states, and on private and tribal properties.
Diet
The Northern Spotted Owl is primarily nocturnal. Its diet consists mainly of wood rats (Neotoma sp.) and flying squirrels, although it will also eat other small mammals, reptiles, birds and insects. They will often swallow their catch whole and regurgitate pellets of indigestible hair, feathers and bones. Males and females both hunt, except during nesting, when males do most of the hunting. They can take prey on the ground and in flight. .
Behavior
The Northern Spotted Owl is very protective of its territory and intolerant of habitat disturbance. Each nesting pair needs a large amount of land for hunting and nesting, and will not migrate unless they experience drastic seasonal changes, such as heavy snows, which make hunting difficult. Their flight pattern is distinct, involving a series of rapid wingbeats interspersed with gliding flight. This technique allows them to glide silently down upon their prey.[1]
Reproduction
Northern Spotted Owls are ready to reproduce at two years of age, but do not typically breed until they are three years old. Male and females mate in February or March and the female lays two or three eggs in March or April. She then incubates the eggs for 30 days. After hatching, the young owls stay with the female 8 to 10 days and fledge in 34 to 36 days. The hunting and feeding is done by the male during this time. The young owls remain with the parents until late summer to early fall. They leave the nest and form their own winter feeding range. By spring, the young owls' territory will be from two to 24 miles from the parents.[2]
Conservation status
There are approximately three to five thousand pairs remaining in the wild, mostly in the states of Washington, Oregon and California.[3]
The worldwide IUCN Red List of Threatened Species status for the Spotted Owl species is Near Threatened with a decreasing population trend.[4] As the IUCN Red List does not track subspecies, this status is applied to species across its whole range in Canada, the United States and Mexico.
The Canadian population, declared endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada under the 2002 Species at Risk Act, now numbers less than 100 breeding pairs of birds. In British Columbia, Canada, only six pairs are known in the wild, down from historic numbers of 500 pairs.[5]
The Northern Spotted Owl was listed as a threatened species under the Endangered Species Act throughout its range of northern California, Oregon and Washington by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service on June 23, 1990[6] citing loss of old-growth habitat as the primary threat. The USFWS previously reviewed the status of the Northern Spotted Owl in 1982, 1987 and 1989 but found it did not warrant listing as either threatened or endangered. Logging in national forests containing the Northern Spotted Owl was stopped by court order in 1991.[2]
Controversy
The logging industry estimated up to 30,000 of 168,000 jobs would be lost because of the owl's status, which agreed closely with a Forest Service estimate.[7] Harvests of timber in the Pacific Northwest were reduced by 80%, decreasing the supply of lumber and increasing prices.[2] The decline in jobs was already in progress because of dwindling old-growth forest harvests and automation of the lumber industry.[7] One study at the University of Wisconsin–Madison by environmental scientists argued that logging jobs had been in a long decline and that environmental protection was not a significant factor in job loss.[8] From 1947 to 1964, the number of logging jobs declined 90%. Starting with the Wilderness Act of 1964, environmental protection saved 51,000 jobs in the Pacific Northwest.[9]
The controversy pitted individual loggers and small sawmill owners against environmentalists. Bumper stickers reading Kill a Spotted Owl—Save a Logger and I Like Spotted Owls—Fried appeared to support the loggers.[7] Plastic spotted owls were hung in effigy in Oregon sawmills.[10] The logging industry, in response to continued bad publicity, started the Sustainable Forestry Initiative.[11] While timber interests and conservatives have cited the Northern Spotted Owl as an example of excessive or misguided environmental protection, many environmentalists view the owl as an "indicator species," or "canary in a coal mine" whose preservation has created protection for an entire threatened ecosystem.[12]
Protection of the owl, under both the Endangered Species Act and the National Forest Management Act, has led to significant changes in forest practices in the northwest. President Clinton's controversial Northwest Forest Plan of 1994 was designed primarily to protect owls and other species dependent on old-growth forests while ensuring a certain amount of timber harvest. Although the result was much less logging, industry automation and the new law meant the loss of thousands of jobs.[3] However, new jobs were created for biologists conducting surveys for spotted owls and other rare organisms that occur in their range.
The debate has cooled somewhat over the years, with little response from environmentalists as the owl's population continues to decline by 3.7 percent per year.[2][3] Under the Bush administration, in 2004 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service reaffirmed that the owl remained threatened, but indicated that the causes of endangerment had changed, mostly as a result of invasion by barred owls into the range and habitat of the spotted owl.
In 2007, the USFWS proposed new recovery plans intended to guide for all management actions on lands where spotted owls occur, and to aid in recovery of the species. Early proposals were criticized by environmental groups as significantly weakening existing protections for the species. The Obama administration reversed proposals that would have increased logging on Bureau of Land Management administered lands. Recent discussion has been focused on two controversial approaches. One of these, would emphasize wildfire management as key to owl persistence on the east side of the Cascades, and in the Klamath province. Another proposal, on control of barred owl populations through culling has been criticized by many animal rights and other activists [13]
Federal biologists were considering in 2010 whether to kill Barred Owls to see if that would help the Spotted Owls.[14]
See also
References
- ^ "Northern Spotted Owl". Defenders of Wildlife. http://www.defenders.org/wildlife_and_habitat/wildlife/spotted_owl,_northern.php. Retrieved 2008-10-30.
- ^ a b c d Brokaw, Jeanne (Nov-Dec 1996). "Does anybody give a hoot?". Mother Jones. p. 15. http://books.google.com/books?id=s-cDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT16&dq=Mother+Jones+Magazine+does+anybody+give+a+hoot%3F&hl=en&ei=1qFnTMyeOo2KvQPUqv39Aw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 15 August 2010.
- ^ a b c Brad Knickerbocker (June 27, 2007). "Northern spotted owl's decline revives old concerns". Christian Science Monitor. http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0627/p02s01-sten.html. Retrieved 2007-06-27.
- ^ "IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4. Downloaded on 10 February 2011.". http://www.iucnredlist.org.
- ^ Larry Pynn (March 24, 2010). "Light dims on B.C.'s wild spotted owls". The Vancouver Sun. http://www.vancouversun.com/technology/Light+dims+wild+spotted+owls/2722270/story.html. Retrieved 2010-03-27.[dead link]
- ^ Federal register 55 FR 26114-26194. Northern Spotted Owl Five-year Review at U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
- ^ a b c Satchell, M. U.S. News & World Report; 6/25/90, Vol. 108 Issue 25, p27, 3p, 6c.
- ^ Freudenburg, William R.; Lisa J. Wilson, Daniel O'Leary (1998). "Forty Years of Spotted Owls? A Longitudinal Analysis of Logging-Industry Job Losses". Sociological Perspectives 41 (#1): pp. 1–26. http://www.es.ucsb.edu/faculty/freudenburg_pdf%27s/40yrsSpottedOwls.pdf. Retrieved 2008-11-12.[dead link]
- ^ Guglielmino, Janine. American Forests; Summer97, Vol. 103 Issue 2, p6, 2/3p, 1bw.
- ^ Adams, Larry. Wood & Wood Products; Dec99, Vol. 104 Issue 13, p62, 1p, 1c.
- ^ Sustainable Forestry Initiative. http://www.aboutsfi.org/
- ^ [1] American Lands Alliance Action Alert, May 15, 2007
- ^ Verhovek, Sam Howe (June 4, 2007). "To protect spotted owl, larger rival is targeted". Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-owls4jun04,1,7172559.story?track=rss&ctrack=2&cset=true. Retrieved 6-4-2007.
- ^ Jeff Barnard Experiment to test killing one owl to help another; Barred owl competing against spotted owl December 10, 2009 The Associated Press
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