Old World porcupine

(Hystricidae)

Class: Mammalia

Order: Rodentia

Suborder: Hystricognathi

Family: Hystricidae

Thumbnail description
Medium-sized to large rodents, with a heavyset body, a tail not more than half as long as the head and body, and short limbs; spines, quills, and bristles cover the back, sides, and parts of the tail

Size
Head and body length 13.8–36.6 in (35–93 cm), tail length 1–10.2 in (2.5–26 cm), weight 3.3–66.1 lb (1.5–30 kg)

Number of genera, species
3 genera; 11 species (extant)

Habitat
Adaptable to a variety of habitats and can be found in such areas as deserts, rocky areas, mountains, savannas, croplands, and forests

Conservation status
Vulnerable: 1 species; Lower Risk/Near Threatened: 2 species.

Distribution
Generally the warmer regions of Asia, Europe, Africa

Evolution and systematics

Old World porcupines evolved from Miocene (24 million to 5 million years ago [mya]) in Asia, from Pliocene (5 to 1.6 mya) in Europe, and from Pleistocene (1.6 mya to 10,000 years ago) in Africa.

Physical characteristics

Bodies range from a rather slender build, in the genus Trichys, to a clumsy and stocky build, in the genus Hystrix. The tail is very short in some species, but can reach around half the head-body length in others. Eyes and external ears are generally small, with a poor sense of sight but a sharp sense of hearing. Nostrils are usually S-shaped, with a sharp sense of smell. The upper lip is cleft, and the tip of the nose is stubbed and covered with velvety hairs. Large, chiselshaped lower and upper incisor teeth do not have longitudinal grooves and grow throughout life; molars are rooted and have irregular enamel folds that are rapidly worn down.

The skull is long and sometimes inflated with air chambers over the rostrum and top of head. The infraorbital foramen (lower orbital cavity in upper jawbone) is unusually enlarged, resulting in portions of masseter (chewing) muscle being penetrated through it, thus enabling muscles to adhere to the frontal side surface of the upper jawbone (called hystricomorphous). The lower jaw is hystricognathous. Features (generally called postorbital processes) possibly evolved to enlarge chewing volume and to allow animals to smell underground bulbs.

Both forelimbs and hind limbs are short and heavily built; as a result, Old World porcupines are excellent diggers and sometimes construct their own burrows. On the two forelimbs, each foot has four well-developed clawed digits and one thumb, which is regressed and externally visible only by nail and thumb pad; each of two hind feet has five functional digits. Claws are short and soles of feet are smooth, naked, and fitted with pads. When walking or running, the entire sole of the foot touches the ground. They are able to swim.

The most characteristic physical features are the quills, spines, and bristles. The head, body, and (in some species) tail are covered by barb-less spines, which are thick, stiff, sharp modified hairs, as much as 13.8 in (35 cm) in length. Spine coloration is brownish or blackish, often with conspicuous white bands around them. All spines lack the barbules that characterize spines of New World porcupines. Longest spines tend to be found on rump and shortest on cheeks. In genus Trichys, for example, spines are short, flattened, and not especially well developed. In genus Hystrix, in contrast, spines develop into hollow quills that reach 7.9 in (20 cm) in length.

Spines vary considerably among species but can be roughly classified into seven groups: (1) stiletto-like quills that are stiff, flattened, with sharp points and longitudinal grooves, which cover most of body; (2) spikes that are thick, inflexible, and with sharp points; (3) bristle-like quills (also called tactile bristles) that are flexible toward the ends, with a round cross section and sharp points; (4) rattling cups that are hollow, capsule-like structures fastened on the end of tail by a thin stem; (5) platelet bristles that are hollow, flattened, yellowish-white at tail end, with shafts that enlarge at regular intervals; (6) brush-type bristles that are flattened, smooth bristles at tail end that look like narrow parchment strips; and (7) mane bristles that are tufts of hair on head and neck.

Normally, quills lie flat and point to the rear. When the animal is threatened or showing aggression, quills can be raised instantly. Hind feet are usually then stamped and quills shaken with a rattling sound (except for Trichys), which serves as a warning to potential predators. If threat continues, the porcupine may charge backwards or sideways into predator with attempt to strike intruder with quills. Quills are loosely attached but cannot be projected. They penetrate flesh and stick readily. No poison is carried; however, bacteria on quills can infect, and sometimes kill, the victim if the puncture wound is deep enough. The area with detached quills will grow back new quills. Some species possess coarse, flat spines that form an erectable crest on necks and tops of heads.

Distribution

Parts of southern Europe, all across southern Asia, on many islands of the East Indies, and throughout Africa.

Habitat

Old World porcupines are usually terrestrial and normally do not climb trees; need only shelter from the weather and for periodic nesting. They often use abandoned deep burrows of other animals; caves, rock crevices, decaying logs, hollow trees, and holes dug by other animals; or deep burrows that they have excavated themselves. Nests are constructed of plant material within the den. Burrows can be complex systems, where many may live in adjoining burrows and may be used for many years. A single burrow may hold up to 10 individuals.

Behavior

Old World porcupines, which are ground living (terrestrial) and slow moving, are called "Old World" in order to distinguish them from the arboreal (tree climbing) porcupines of the New World. Mainly nocturnal (hiding during the day) and terrestrial. These animals walk heavily on the sole of the foot with the heel touching the ground, and run with a shuffling gait or gallop clumsily when pursued. Except for genus Trichys, they rattle their spines when moving and may also stamp their feet when alarmed. Temperament (from observations in captivity) ranges from shy and nervous to docile; some species are moderately gregarious. Chief predators are wild cats, birds of prey, hyenas, and pythons.

Feeding ecology and diet

The diet consists of mostly vegetation with many kinds of plant material and crops such as sweet potatoes, bananas, peanuts, pineapple, maize, sugarcane, onions, potatoes, cucumbers, beans, melons, grapes, and mangoes, but carrion feeding and bone gnawing also occurs. Gnawed bones often litter area around dens (may be chewed on for deficient minerals such as calcium). Old World porcupines often gnaw on branches, tree bark, and tree trunks to help teeth wear down properly.

Reproductive biology

An elaborate nighttime dance and courtship involves the male showering the female with urine. If the female is receptive, the male stands motionless in front of the female, then approaches and retreats numerous times while making sounds to her. (If female is not receptive, she will be aggressive toward the courting male.) When ready, the female will raise her rear and tail high with her chest on ground. Male will mount female by clasping her sides with his front paws and balancing on his hind feet. No male weight is transferred to the female. (Males have no external scrotum and the penis normally points backward.) Both males and females loudly whine, grunt, and squeal while mating.

The gestation period is usually 93–110 days, depending on species; breeding occurs usually once a year (sometimes twice), during March to December; usually one to two young, but up to four in a litter is possible. Young are precocial and have fur and the ability to locomote at birth. They weigh about 12 oz (340 g) at birth and nurse for about three to four months, able to feed almost immediately. Eyes are open when born or open within first few hours. Females have two to three pairs of mammae that are located on sides of chest cage, just behind shoulders. After a week or so, soft, short hair-like quills will harden and young may leave nest with mother. Sexual maturity is reached at nine to 18 months. The life span in captivity is at least 10 years, and in the wild, average life span is about 20 years.

Conservation status

The common porcupine (Hystrix brachyura) is considered Vulnerable. Both the thick-spined porcupine (Hystrix crassispinis) and North African porcupine (Hystrix cristata) are ranked as Lower Risk/Near Threatened by the IUCN. Predation and human encroachment are the main threats, though many Hystricidae species are quite adaptable to changing habitat.

Significance to humans

Porcupines are hunted for meat (considered a delicacy in some societies) and to acquire quills as ornaments and talismans. The animals carry fleas and ticks and transmit a number of diseases, including rickettsiasis and bubonic plague. Because of their habit of gnawing bark off trees and eating agricultural crops, they are often regarded as pests.

Species accounts

Resources

Feldhemer, George A., Lee C. Drickamer, Stephen H. Vessey, and Joseph F. Merritt. Mammalogy: Adaptation, Diversity, and Ecology. Boston: WCB McGraw-Hill, 1999.

Gould, Dr. Edwin, and Dr. George McKay, eds. Encyclopedia of Mammals. 2nd ed. San Diego: Academic Press, 1998.

Grzimeks Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 1990.

Macdonald, David. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: Facts on File Publications, 1984.

McKenna, Malcolm C., and Susan K. Bell. Classification of Mammals: Above the Species Level. New York: Columbia University Press, 1997.

Nowak, Ronald M. Walker's Mammals of the World. Vol. 2, 6th ed. Baltimore, MD and London, U.K.: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.

Vaughan, Terry A., James M. Ryan, and Nicholas J. Czaplewski. Mammalogy. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing, 2000.

Wilson, Don E. and DeeAnn M. Reeder, eds. Mammal Species of the World. 2nd ed. Washington, D.C. and London, U.K.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993.

Woods, C. A. "Hystricognath Rodents." In Orders and Families or Mammals of the World, edited by S. Anderson and J. K. Jones Jr., 389–446. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1984.

Atherurus africanus. Animal Diversity Web, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan. December 1999 [May 9, 2003].

Hole, Robert B. Jr. A Checklist of the Mammals of the World: Rodentia 3 (Hystricomorpha). BiologyBase. [April 19, 2003].

Hystricidae, Hystricidés. [May 9, 2003].

Hystricidae. The Indonesian Nature Conservation Database. January 2, 2001 [May 9, 2003].

Hystricidae: Old World Porcupines. Animal Diversity Web, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan. November 26, 1999 [May 9, 2003].

Hystrix pumila. Mammals of the Philippines, The Field Museum, Chicago, Illinois. [May 9, 2003].

Porcupine. Infoplease.com, Family Education Network. [May 11, 2003].

Lockwood, Burleigh. Rodentia: Suborder Caviomorpha (The Families of Caviomorpha: Guinea Pig-type Rodents). The Chaffee Zoo, Fresno, California. [May 9,2003].

Night Safari Ranger Station: Crested Porcupine (Hystricidae brachyura). Volunteer Rangers, Singapore Zoological Gardens Docent Group. [May 9, 2003].

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[Article by: William Arthur Atkins]

The noun has one meaning:

Meaning #1: terrestrial porcupine