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Ottoman military reform efforts began after the Belle Époque of European civilization. Ottoman military reforms follow the empire's transformation to become a modern country. It followed the same period only a couple decade later of Russia's reforms, and Japan's opening of its doors to west during Meiji Restoration. Ottoman military reform efforts like its contemporary Modernization of Japanese Military 1868–1931 managed to develop modern army. The reforms were not a single transformation, but a collection of waves.
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Reforms of Selim III
When Selim III came to the throne in 1789, an ambitious effort of military reform was launched, geared towards securing the Ottoman Empire. The sultan and those who surrounded him were conservative and desired to preserve the status quo. No one in power in the Empire had any interest in social transformation.
Introduction of advisors
Western military advisors were imported but their abilities to enact change were limited. A parade of French officers were brought in, and none of them could do a great deal. One example of an advisor who achieved limited success was the François Baron de Tott, a French officer. He did succeed in having a new foundry built to make artillery. As well he directed the construction of a new naval base. Unfortunately it was almost impossible for him to divert soldiers from the regular army into the new units. The new ships and guns that made it into service were too few to have much of an influence on the Ottoman army and de Tott returned home.
When they had requested French help, a young artillery officer by the name of Napoleon Bonaparte was to be sent to Istanbul. He did not go, for just days before he was to embark for the Near East he proved himself useful to the Directory by putting down a Parisian mob in the whiff of grapeshot and was kept in France.
New Army System
The most important change was the creation of an elite new infantry unit; the nizam-i jedid was set up with western uniforms, weapons, and training. This group would offend the Janissaries. Once elite forces, the Janissaries had become a conservative elite using their military power to advance themselves commercially and politically.In 1806 the Janissaries, with support of the ulema and the provincial governors, revolted against the Sultan and his new force and replaced him with Mustafa IV.
Reforms of Mahmud II
In 1808 he was replaced by Mahmud II with martial law of Alemdar Mustafa Pasha who restarted the reform efforts. His first actions was to ally with the Janissaries to break the power of the provincial governors. He then turned on the Janissaries, massacring them in their barracks in Istanbul and the provincial capitals in 1826, Auspicious Incident. The Sultan now set himself to replace the Janissaries by other regular troops. The Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829 did not give him time to organize a new army, and the Sultan was forced to fight with these young and undisciplined recruits against the veterans of the Tsar. The war was brought to a close by the disastrous Treaty of Adrianople. While the reforms in question were mainly implemented to improve the military, the most notable development that arose out of these efforts was a series of schools teaching everything from math to medicine to train new officers.
Reforms of Abdulmejid
Sultan, Abdul Medjid enjoyed several years of peace, which have enabled him to form a powerful and well disciplined army, which was established at the beginning of the year 1842.
Army Reorganization
Until the abolition of the Corps of Janissaries, the Ottoman army had remained a professional body. The soldier was recruited by becoming a member of the Corps of Janissaries in accordance with the rules and regulations of that corps. After the abolition of the Janissaries, military service ceased to be a paid profession and was converted into a compulsory service. Muslims from Anatolia and Thrace were conscripted into the army and forced to serve as soldiers for years on end. During the reign of Abdulmecid (1839-1861) the methods of recruitment and the length of military service were defined, and military service accepted as a duty to be performed by all citizens of the Empire. But this principal proved impossible to implement. No soldiers were recruited from the non-Muslim peoples of the Empire, nor were soldiers recruited from the wholly Muslim communities in Bosnia, Herzegovina, Albania, the Arab Peninsula and Tripoli. Moreover, the citizens of Istanbul were exempt from Military Service. Thus the Imperial army inevitably began to assume the character of a national army. All attempts made during the reign of Abdulaziz (1861-1876) to extend military service to the Non-Muslim peoples of the Empire and to the population of those provinces which soldiers were not normally recruited, remained abortive. At the same time, the custom began of accepting a certain sum of money from the non-Muslim communities of Anatolia and Thrace in return for exemption from military service.
Under Abdulhamid II (1876-1909), in addition to the soldiers conscripted from the Turkish and Muslim population by the drawing of lots, a number of volunteers were also accepted, together with those willing to perform military service in return for payment.
But the soldiers recruited in this way were both few in number and ineffective as combat troops. On the outbreak of war, the volunteers were found lacking in proper military training, while those who had joined up for the sake of the pay provided of little value. The Ottoman army, composed of soldiers recruited this way, was organised in several grades. The backbone of the army consisted of the Nizamiye (combat) troops. Service in the Nizamiye lasted for four years. Those who had completed this term of service then served for two years in the Yedek (reserves). The second branch and grade of the service consisted of redif (auxiliary) forces, with an eight years term of service. Those who had completed their service in the nizamiye, yedek and redif forces entered the mustahafiz (reservist) branch, in which they served for a further six years. The term of military service in the Empire thus amounted to a total of twenty years. Military Armies and their Bases: For considerations of defence, the Ottoman Empire was divided into several military regions with one army in each region. Each of these armies bore the name of the region in which it was stationed, except for the First Army, which was stationed in Istanbul and was known as the Hassa (Imperial) Army. The Second Army (the army of the Danube) centered in Sumnu. The Third Army (army of Thrace) centered in Manastir. The Fourth Army (army of Anatolia) centered in Erzurum. The Fifth Army (army of Syria) centered in Damascus. The Sixth Army (army of Arabia) centered in Baghdad and the Seventh Army (of Yemen) centers in San’a. However after the Ottoman-Russian war of 1877-78, the base of the Second Army was transferred to Edirne and the Fourth army to Erzincan.
Each army was composed of four firka (divisions), each firka had two liva (brigades), each liva of two alay, each alay of four tabur (battalions), each tabur of four boluk (companies) and each boluk of three takim (platoons).
According to the military re-organisation carried out during the reign of Abdulhamid II military ranks were as follows: Mulazim-i sani (Second Lieutenant), Mulazim-i evvel (First Lieutenant), Yuzbasi (Captain), Kolagasi (Adjutant Major), Binbasi (Major), Kaymakam (Lieutenant-Colonel), Miralay (Colonel), Mirliva (Brigadier-General), Ferik (Divisional-General) and Musir (Marshal). In the cavalry regiments there were also Yuzbasi vekili (Lieutenant Captain) and in the artillery the rank of Mulazim-i sani (Third Lieutenant)
Officers of the rank of Mulazim-i Sani to Binbasi were known as zabitan (officers), and those from Kaymakan to Miralay as Buyuk zabitan (senior officers), while pashas were known as Erkani Askeriye. Officers of the rank of Mulazim-i sani to Binbasi were addressed as “Efendi”, while those from Kaymakam to Miralay were addressed as “Bey”. Officers who had risen from the ranks and were unable to read and write were addressed as “Agha” while those who had passed their literary examination were addressed as “Efendi”.
The officers in the Ottoman army were divided into two categories, the Mektepli, graduates of the military schools, and the Alayli, officers who had risen from the ranks. Infantry and cavalry officers were trained in the Harb Okulu (Military school), while artillery and engineer officers trained in the Kara Muhendishanesi (Land Engineering School), graduating from these schools with the rank of lieutenant. The most successful were sent to the erkan-i harbiye and mumtaz (general staff and select) divisions for a further three years study, then eight months at the sinif-i selase-i askeriye as captains or officers attached as captains to the general staff, after which they were appointed as kolagasi to the Erkan-i Harbiye Umumiye Dairesi or the Ordu Erkan-i Harbiye.
Idare zabitani (Administrative officers); Alay eminleri (regimental adjutants and paymasters) engaged in clerical and administrative duties, alay and tabur katipleri (regimental and battalion clerks) were counted as idare subayi (administrative officers), an alay emini or alay katibi being equivalent to a kolagasi, and the tabur katibi to a yuzbasi. The tabur katibi muavini (assistant battalion clerks) were a degree lover than a lieutenant.
Sihhiye zabitani (health officers) were doctors and pharmacists who graduated with the rank of captain from the Mekteb-i Tibbiy-e Sahane (Imperial Medical School), while veterinary surgeons graduated with the same rank from the Mekteb-i Harbiye-i Sahane (Imperial Military Academy). The doctors served for two years in the Gulhane hospital, after which they were appointed to a regiment or to another hospital.
Every infantry and artillery regiment had a battalion imam to assist the soldiers in the performance of their religious duties. These were also regarded as officers. Battalion imams held a rank above yuzbasi but below kolagasi, while regimental muftis held the rank above kolagasi but below that of alay eminleri (regimental quartermasters). Regimental imams were below the regimental muftis but above the battalion imams.
Kucuk zabitani (junior officers) in the infantry held the ranks of sergeant (cavus) and sergeant major (bascavus), while in the cavalry there were lance sergeants (cavus vekili), sergeants and sergeant majors. In the artillery sergeants, major sergeants and armoury sergeants (cephane cavusu) were present. Although corporals (onbasi) and lance-corporals (onbasi vekili) held ranks in the army, they were not recognised as being in this category.
The Ottoman infantry was divided into five categories. The nizamiye, ihtiyat, redif, mustahafiz and ilave. The Nizame (active) troops made up the peace-time establishment of the army and consisted of several armies and nineteen divisions. Each division included a nisanci (marksman) battalion. In Istanbul the normal establishment was supplemented by four battalions of Zouaves (with turbans and fezes), and four and a half fire-fighting brigades (itfaye taburu). Every two nizamiye divisions from the 1st to the 14th formed an army corps, while the 15th and 16th divisions remained independent in Tripoli and the Hijaz respectively. The 17th and 18th divisions were attached to the third army while the 19th division was attached to the fourth army. The Ihtiyah (reserves) consisted of reserve troops which could be used to bring the nizamiye forces up to the strength required. Redif (auxiliary) forces were divided into twenty-four divisions, with four divisions in each of the army regions from the first to the sixth. These did not include nisanci forces in their formation or organisation. The Ilave taburlari (supplementary divisions) complemented the active and reserve troops. These men formed a large proportion of the Imperial forces, their strength being roughly equal to the redif and nizamiye combined. They were organised as nizamiye and were divided into the Thracian and Anatolian sections. The Mustahafiz (reservists) are whose who had completed their service in the nizamiye, ihtiyat and redif forces but were liable to be called up for active service for a further six years. Their organisation was similar to the redif forces.
The Ottoman Cavalry forces were divided into three sections. They were known as the nizamiye, redif and hamidiye. The nizamiye forces consisted of six divisions, with each division to each of the six armies. Apart from this there were two regiments in Tripoli and a further two companies in the 7th army and the Hijaz section. A newly established Ertugrul Cavalry Regiment was attached to the first in Istanbul, which was equipped with lances, like the first regiment in each of the cavalry divisions. The other regiments were armed with carbines. Apart from this, there was a “Remont” regiment in the Cifteler Harasi (stud farm) which bred around three hundred horses a year for the army. The cavalry divisions and brigades were organised in the same manner as those in the infantry. The 1st, 2nd and 3rd redif regiments were formed in order to keep the cavalry regiments on campaign up to strength, and using the remainder in other branches. The Hamidiye Regiments consisted of three regiments which composed of members of tribes living in east Anatolia. They were under the command of a divisional general with the title “Asakir-i Hamidiye Komutani”, assisted by two miralays. Some of the regimental and company commanders were chosen from the officers in the nizamiye cavalry, others were among the chiefs or other members of the tribes. These regiments were attached to the fourth army, and amounted to a total of sixty-two regiments forming seven divisions. Military service in the cavalry, comprising service in the ihzariye (preliminary training) nizamiye and ihtiyatiye amounted in all to twenty-three years. In return for this service the tribes were exempted from tax.
The artillery was divided into two sections, kal’e (garrison) and seyyar (mobile) forces. The mobile artillery was divided into sahra (desert) and cebel (mountain), the desert artillery being divided into cavalry and infantry. Although it had been planned that there should be one artillery regiment to each nizamiye and redif infantry division, this could only be implemented in only five armies. The five artillery divisions thus established were placed under the command of a divisional general of artillery. Each division was composed of three brigades, each brigade of three regiments, each regiment of two battalions and each battalion of three to four companies. The artillery companies were known as “batarya” (batteries). The garrison artillery forces were responsible for the defence of all strongholds and fortified places along the coasts and frontiers of the Empire. They were partly attached to the Tophane Musirligi (Marshal of the Ordinance).
Some of the engineer (istihkam) units were, like the armies, attached to the Seraskerlik (Ministry of War), others to the Tophane Musirligi. Although it was originally planned that each of the seven armies should have a battalion of engineers and a company of soldiers, this could be implemented only in the first four armies. In the other armies only engineer companies would be formed. The engineer battalions were divided into four companies, the first and second companies being made up of sappers, the third that of pontoon soldiers, and the fourth of miners. There was only one regiment of engineers under the command of tophane musirligi. This was known as the Tophane-i Amire-i Istihkam Alayi (regiment of engineers of the imperial ordinance).
The transport (nakliye) branch consisted of one battalion attached to each of the first six armies and two battalions attached to the seventh army. The officers commanding these battalions were chosen from among the artillery and cavalry officers.
The mechanical engineers (sanayi) was under the command of the nizamiye and part under the command of the tophane musirligi. The mechanical engineers attached to the nizamiye consisted of one regiment, together with platoons of mechanical engineers in the various armies. The section under the command of the tophane musirligi consisted of only two regiments.
The gendarmerie (jandarma) were under command of the Seraskerlik in all matters concerning property and public order they were under the command and supervision of the civil administration. As far as general administration was concerned this branch was attached to the Seraskerlik and was under the command of the Jandarma Dairesi (Gendarmerie Office) with a divisional general at its head. There was a regiment of gendarmes in every province and in places without a gendarme regiment the same duties were carried out by the zabtiye regiments. There were thirty-four regiments in all. These were organised in the same way as other nizamiye regiments, but the companies might be infantry or cavalry according to the place in which they were carrying out their duties. The officers were chosen from among the officers of the nizamiye. In the captiye regiments the miralay was known as the Alaybeyi (Regiment Bey), the Binbasi as the Taburagasi Muavini (Asjutant Battalion Agha), the Yuzbasi as the Bolukagasi Muavini (lieutenant company agha), the Mulazim-i sani as the Jurnal Emini, the sira cavusu sergeant of the line) as the kol vekili (platoon leader) and the onbasi as the kol vekili muavini (assistant platoon leader). Some gendarme regiments were commanded by a mirlava (Brigadier General), whereas zaptiye regiments were commanded by officers of the rank of mirimiran.
There was a number of Military schools based around the Empire and specializing in different branches of the military. These consisted of the Askeri Rustiye (secondary school), Askeri Idadi (Lycee), Mekteb-i Harbiye-i Sahane (Military Academy), Muhendishane-i Berr-i Humayun (Engineering School), Mekteb-i Funun-i Tibbiye-i Sahane (Medical School), Mekteb-i Funun-i Bahriye-i Sahane (naval academy) and the Baytar Harbiyesi (Veterinary School). These schools were under the direction of a minister, a deputy minister and general inspector. The Harbiye and Tibiye (Military and Medical Schools) were attached to the Seraskerlik, while the Kara Muhendishanesi (Engineering school) was attached to the Tophane Musirligi (Imperial Ordinance).
There were twenty-seven secondary schools, seven of them in Istanbul. The course of instruction lasted for three years. There were seven lycees, situated in Istanbul, Edirne, Bursa, Manastir, Erzurum, Damascus and Baghdad, each with a three years’ period of instruction. There were also medical and engineering lycees.
The Kara Harp Okulu (Army School) was in Istanbul. It had a period of three years’ period of instruction. The students were divided into two groups, infantry and cavalry. Those who successfully completed the course of instruction graduated with the rank of lieutenant. An average of six-hundred officers graduated each year. The most successful of the students, up to not more than 10%, continued their instruction for another three years as staff officer cadets. One third of the graduates were appointed staff officers, the rest were appointed captains in the infantry and cavalry. Those appointed staff officers spent a further eight months in the sinif-i selase-i askeriye, and then, having completed their instruction and training by a two years’ service in the regiments and battalions, they were given staff appointments with the rank of Kolagasi.
The Kara Muhendishanesi (Army Engineering School) was in Istanbul, and comprised a lycee and a military academy. The Hedese-i Mekteb-i Sahane (Imperial College of Mathermatics) formed part of this school. Some of the graduates from the school were sent to the Harbiye (Military Academy) as staff officer cadets with the rank of lieutenant. Those graduating from the Academy were appointed to artillery or cavalry regiments as staff officers, while those who failed to graduate were appointed to these regiments as artillery or engineer lieutenants with the title “mumtaz” (select). A quarter of the students passing from the Kara Muhendishanesi to the first class of the Harbiye were sent to the engineers, the remaining three quarters being distributed between garrison and mobile artillery units.
The Deniz Harp Okulu (Naval Academy) was on the island of Heybeli. This school was administered by a minister and was made up of six classes, four of them Lycee and two of them Harbiye (Military Academy). A large proportion of the student accepted into the Lycee section were selected from the Kasimpasa Askeri Rustiyesi (Military Second School).
The Mekteb-i Tibbiye (Medical School) was at Gulhane. The course lasted six years. Graduates continued at Gulhane Hospital for a further year, then after studying as an assistant surgeon for a further two years at the same hospital, they were appointed to other hospitals or sent to serve in the regiments and battalions.
Some of the graduates from the Baytar Harbiyesi (Military Veterinary College) and the Baytar ve Eczaci Rustiyesi (veterinary and pharmaceutical Secomdary School) were sent to the Tibbiye (Medical School), others to the Harbiye (Military Academy). Graduates from the Tibbiye were appointed Pharmacy Captains. Those sent to Harbiye studies for five years in the Baytar Harbiyest and were then sent out as Veterinary Captains.
There were three types of officer’s uniform. Kucuk (ordinary), buyuk (dress) and gundelik (everyday). Officers in all branches of the service wore trousers differing only in the colour of the piping. The buyuk uniform had silver and gold embroidery on the collar and cuffs, but no such embroidery can be found on the kucuk uniform. The ordinary uniform was also known as the “Cumalik elbise” (Friday dress). Although on ceremonial occasions epaulettes, decorations and medals were worn with both the ordinary and dress uniform, the wearing of sashes was mainly confined to the dress uniform. Neither sashes nor gloves, however, were worn with the dress uniform on visits to the Hirka-i Serif (Mantle of the Prophet).
Officers walking out in uniform, on guard in the barracks or entering the presence of a superior officer were obliged to wear either sword or side-arms at the waist. Privates always walked out unarmed. The uniforms of privates and junior officers up to the rank of Kolagasi were supplied by the state. Officers above the rank of Kolagasi were responsible for having their own uniforms made in accordance with a certain model.
Uniforms were made of broadcloth and varied in colour according to the branch of the service. Summer uniforms in the Fifth, Sixth and Seventh Armies, as well as in the Tripoli Division, could be of white cotton or linen. Privates’ uniforms were generally made of dark blue of black coarse wollen cloth, but in the above-mentioned armies and for those in the Hijaz or Tripoli, summer uniforms were white. Privates and junior officers had two sets of uniform, one new and the other for everyday wear. Privates in the guard-house or on duty outside the barracks or on leave always wore the new uniform. Short haircuts were insisted upon, and those wishing to grow a beard were obliged to act in accordance with the orders of their commanding officer. Great stress was laid on neatness and tidiness of dress as well as to which uniform should be worn on any particular occasion. Those acting in contravention of such rules or those overlooking them were strictly punished.
The chain-of-command in the general staff of each army was composed of a commander-in-chief, two lieutenant-generals, three brigadiers of infantry, one of whom commands the reserve, two brigadiers of cavalry, and one brigadier of artillery. In each corps there were three regiments of infantry, two of cavalry, and one of artillery, with thirty-three guns. The total strength of these twelve regiments of active forces was 30,000 men, but it was diminished in time of peace by furlough to an effective strength of about 25,000 men in three of the six armies, as well as 15,000 troops in the other three, a consequence of the recruiting system being as yet incomplete in its application all over the Ottoman Empire. The whole establishment of this branch amounts, therefore, to 180,000 men, belonging to the active service, but its effective strength is at present 123,000.
The reserve of four of the six armies consisted of eleven regiments, six of which were infantry, four of cavalry, and one of artillery. The total combined force equalled 12,000 troops, while the other two armies have not met their reserve of soldiers who have served five years. In time of war, however, the reserve would form two corps of 25,000 men in each army; giving a total of 300,000. The two services, therefore, as they stood, formed an effective force of 835,000 men; and when their full strength shall have been filled up it will amount to 480,000.
Besides these six armies there were four detached corps. These corps raise the effective strength of the standing army to 365,000 men.
Deployment at the time consisted of the following:
- the Island of Crete was assigned three regiments of infantry and one of cavalry, in all 11,000 men;
- the Pashalik of Tripoli in Africa was assigned one regiment of infantry and one of cavalry, about 5,000 strong;
- the Pashalik of Tunis was assigned one regiment of infantry and one of cavalry, about 5,000 strong.
Aside from deployed troops, the ottoman military also had the following units:
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- the central artillery corps,
- a standing brigade of sappers and miners with engineer officers,
- the veteran artillery brigade,
- permanent artillery garrisons of the fortresses on the
- The Hellespont,
- The Bosphorus,
- The Danube, in Serbia, on the Adriatic,
- The coast of Asia Minor, in the islands of the Archipelago,
- the southern shores of the Black Sea, constituting a combined force of approximately 9,000 troops.
Besides augmentation of 32,000 men by the submission of Bosnia and Northern Albania to the new system; and a further increase of 40,000 men, which Serbia had arranged to furnish, 18,000 men served in Egypt, which would act to reinforce the reserve of the fifth army.
The marines, sailors, and workmen, enrolled in brigades, amounted to 34,000 men. The grand total of armed men at the disposal of Ottoman Empire at the time could be calculated at no less than 664,000 men. In addition, the Ottomans could call-up occasional levies, which were more easily and efficiently utilized in the Ottoman Empire than in any other country at the time.
Police Force
The police force, picketed all over the Empire, equalled a force of approximately 30,000.
Reforms of Abdulhamid
Abdulhamid attached utmost importance to the reorganization of the military. As early as 1880 he sought, and two years later secured, German assistance, which culminated in the appointment of Lt. Col. Kohlcr and, finally, Colmar Von der Goltz as military advisors.
The curriculum of Harbiye (War College) was specialized further to train staff officers in the European style. The school’s name was changed to Mckteb-i Fununu Harb (School of War Science). It was during his reign that the officers’ training was upgraded and regularized, starting with the mid-level military rt2diye and idadi schools and culminating in the Mckteb-i l-larbiye (War College) or, for the most Capable, in the Erkan-i l-larbiye (Chiefs of Staff). The last, as a concept and an organization, was largely the work of von der Goltz.
However, although the consensus that Abduiharnid favored the modernization of the Ottoman army and the professionalization of the officer was fairly general, it seems that he neglected the military during the last fifteen years of his reign, and he also cut down the military budget. The problem with the army (numbering Ca. 700,000 at the end of the century), besides the officers’ constant opposition to field exercises, was the growing number of underpaid officers, and the lack of a proper retirement system. The annual army expenditures were some 7,756,000 liras out of a total national budget of 18,927,000 liras for 1897; when the Debt Administration claimed 6,483.000 liras, little was left for investment in economic development.
Reforms of 2nd Constitutional Period
Footnote
- ^ Section based on the article by THE INTERNATIONAL MAGAZINE 1855.
See also
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