Parama Kamboja

Articles related to Kambojas
Etymology
Kamboja Location
Kambojas and Sakas
in Indian Literature
Mahabharata
Manusmrti
Kautiliya
Migrations
Kamboja Dynasty of Bengal
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It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Kambojas in Indian literature. (Discuss)

Parama-Kamboja is a division of the Kambojas of Indian antiquity attested in the Mahabharata epic. Besides Mahabharata, there are other ancient texts/sources which also indirectly support the existence of two Kamboja divisions in ancient times.

Contents 1 Mahabharata evidence 1.1 Kamboja 1.2 Parama-Kamboja 1.3 Further References to Parama-Kamboja 2 Etymology of Parama-Kamboja 3 More evidence on two Kamboj settlements 3.1 Evidence from Dasam-Granth 3.2 Evidence from Ptolemy 4 Parama Kamboja connections with Rishikas/Tukharas/Yue-chis? 5 Epilogue 6 See also 7 References 8 Books and Periodicals

Mahabharata evidence

Kamboja

In Arjuna's Digvijaya campaign against the tribes of north, in the direction presided over by the lord of treasures, Pandava hero Arjuna reduces the Bahlika (north-west Punjab) country, and then meets the Daradas (Gilgit) and the Kambojas (Paropamisadae to Rajauri) and obtains tribute from them ^[1]

This settlement of the Kambojas was in neighborhood of the Daradas and is located on the southern side of Hindu Kush in the region, which later formed parts of the Greek strapy of Paropamisadae. In the east, it is known to have extended as far as Rajapura (Rajauri) located in west Kashmir, as attested by Mahabharata ^[2]

The capital city of Kamboja was at Rajauri (Dr B. C. Law, Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury).

Parama-Kamboja

Mahabharata attests that after settling with the Daradas and the Kambojas, Arjuna fights with the robber tribes of the mountainous frontiers and dasyus (barbarians) of the woods, and thereafter, taking select forces, Arjuna goes across Hindukush to fight with the allied tribes of the Lohas, Parama-Kambojas and northern Rishikas ^[3].

The Lohas, Param-Kambojas and the northern Rishikas were all cognate tribes, and all were located in trans-Himalayan (i.e trans-Hindukush) territories. The distant northerly section of the northern Rishikas were known as "Parama Rishikas" ^[4]. Another settlement of the Rishikas somewhere between river Tapti and Godavari, in western India is also attested in Puranic and epic literature. They were probably located on or south of river Tapti, west of Vidarbhas, north of the Mulakas, east of Soparka and south of Anupadesa (in modern Maharashtra).

The northern Rishikas were apparently located towards Sogdiana/Fargana territories. According to classical writings, the vast region beyond Mount Hemodos (i.e north of Hindukush/Himalaya) was known as Scythia ^[5]. The same was known as Sakadvipa in ancient Sanskrit literature.

Scholars like Jayachandra Vidyalankar, Moti Chandra etc locate Kambojas in Badakshan, as neighbors to Bahlikas and say that the Daradas had come as allies of Kambojas in the Badakshan battle with Arjuna. After defeating the Kambojas, Arjuna meets the forces of Lohas, Parama Kambojas and Rishikas, in north-easterly territories. Mahabharata attests the Lohas, Parama Kambojas and Rishikas as allied (sahitan) tribes ^[6].

Jayachandra Vidyalankar identifies Parama Kamboja with Ghalcha speaking Yaghnobi regions at the head waters of Zerafshan river, in old Sogdiana, a tract of country considerably to the north of the Pamirs and separated from them by the hill states subordinate to Bokhara ^[7]. H. C. Seth identifies the mountainous region between the Oxus and Jaxartes (old Sogdiana) as the locale of the ancient Kambojas ^[8]. This primarily forms the Parama Kambojas of the Mahabharata.

The Parama-Kambojas were located in Pamirs/Badakshan and as far as Zeravshan valley in Sogdiana (See: Kamboja Location). Since this region was beyond Mount Hemados/Himaos, it apparently fell in Scythic cultural belt. The Parama Kambojas, therefore, were pure Iranians following Irano-Scythian culture and customs rather than the Indo-Aryan. The capital city of the Parama-Kamboja was probably at Darwaz in Pamirs.

Further References to Parama-Kamboja

There are several more references in the Drona Parva, Sauptika Parva and Karana Parva of Mahabharata, which amply attest the excellent breed of horses from Parama-Kamboja. The Following is one illustrative example, picked up from Sauptikaparva of Mahabharata, which sufficiently attests the Parama-Kamboja people as well as their foremost breed of war steeds ^[9].

It is interesting to note that like Madras/Uttara Madras, Kurus/Uttara Kurus, Kambojas/ Parama Kambojas, there were also two settlements of the Yonas (Yavanas)--- the Yona and the Parama Yona ^[10]. Further, there is also an ancient reference to China and Parama China in Valmiki Ramayana ^[11].

The Yona probably referred to Archosian Yavanas while the Parama-Yona to the Bactrian Yavanas. Similarly China probably referred to little Tibet, while the Parama China (also known as Maha-China: see Manasollasa) referred to the main China.

Etymology of Parama-Kamboja

The prefix Parama- can be interpretted in the sense of (1) Uttara or northern (2) Furthest or beyond and (3) Greater/supreme.

The Parama- with a sense of northern/Uttara ^[12] sounds logical since the Parama- branch of the Kambojas was located in Uttara or north direction to Kambojas. Moreover, this name also sounds similar to Uttara-Madra and Uttara-Kuru which nations were their immediate neighbors in the Trans-Himalayans. The Parama- in the sense of Greater also makes good sense since the trans-Hindukush branch the Kambojas was original and perhaps the Greater or bigger section of the Kambojas ^[13]. Some scholars, like Dr Fauja Singh, Dr L. M. Joshi have interpreted Parama- in the sense of "beyond", which also looks senseful since Parama-Kamboja was located beyond the Kamboja, when seen from India. Dr J. Muir interprets Parama Kamboja as the Furthest Kamboja ^[14] while others call it Distant Kamboja ^[15]. Some writers however, translate it as Eastern Kamboja ^[16]. In Panini's Ashtadhyayi, the term "Parama-" stands for "the best-" ^[17]. This meaning may imply that Parama Kamboja, like Uttara-kuru, was perhaps regarded as the more exalted land as compared to the Kamboja.

More evidence on two Kamboj settlements

Evidence from Dasam-Granth

While referring to the invasion of Alexander of Macedon, Dasam Granth a seventeenth century text of Punjab refers to Kambuj and Kamboj obviously two distinct settlements^[18]

The text obviously refers to Kambuj (Kabuj) as neighbors to the Kabulis and then the Kamboj as neighbors to the Kilmaka and China (Cheen ke) people. Kilmakas probably refers to the Mongol Kalmucks who lived in Central Asian Steppes. After Kilmaks, follows the destruction of countless forces of China (Cheen ke). Then it refers to Macheen (Manchuria).

Thus, the Dasam-Granth authors seem to be aware of the existence of two ancient Kamboja settlements.

Evidence from Ptolemy

Ptolemy refers to a region located on the southern bank of Oxus in Badakshan or Bactria ^[19], and calls it Tambyzoi. According to scholars like Dr S Levi, Tambyzoi is a Greek transliteration of Sanskrit Kamboja ^[20]

Ptolemy also refers to another people/region which he calls Ambautai ^[21] which he locates on the southern side of Hindukush in the Paropamisadae ^[22].

Ptolemy refers yet to another people/region he calls Komoi, whom he locates in the mountains of Sogdiana north of Bactria/Badakshan. It has been suggested that the Komoi of Ptolemy also indicate the same people as the Kambojas of the Sanskrit texts. The Komoi is Ptolemian transtliteration of Kamboi. Kamboi comes from Kamboika or Kamboyka which is corruption of Kambojika ^[23]. Kambojika is Pali equivalent of Sanskrit Kamboja. Pali texts numerously write Kamboja as well as Kambojaka/Kambojika. Scholars like Dr H. C. Seth observe: "The mountainous highlands where Jaxartes and many other rivers which meet this great river arise, are called by Ptolemy as the "the Highlands of Komdei". Ammianus Marcellinus also call these Sogdian mountains as Komedas. The word Komedai and Komedas suggest Kom-desa or land of Kome. We learn from Ptolemy that a tribe variously called by him as Komaroi, Komedai, Khomaroi and Komoi was wide spread in the Highlands of Bactriana and Sogdiana. It is difficult to say, at present, how far the vast tracts of land on either side of Oxus called as Kyzyl Kum or Kizil Kum, Kok-kum and Kara Kum may yet bear the traces of the name of this once a great and powerful people" ^[24]. These scholars have placed the ancient Kambojas in a vast area, in the doab of Oxus and Jaxartes, in the southern tip of Sakadvipa or Scythia. The Komdei of Ptolemy or the Kumudadvipa of the Puranic texts, obviously represents the Parama Kambojas ^[25] of the Mahabharata ^[26].

Thus, it looks likely that the Kamboja clans were spread in Kabol valley in Paropamisadae, in Badakshan/Pamir as well as up to the highlands of Sogdiana. The Yagnobi, a dialect of the modern Galcha language spoken in/around the head waters of river Zeravshan (in Zeravshan valley), up in Sogdiana still contains the relics of ancient Kamboji verb Shavti used in the sense to go ^[27].

Parama Kamboja connections with Rishikas/Tukharas/Yue-chis?

Some scholars hold that the Rishikas are same as the Yuezhis ^[28]. Prof Stein thinks that the Tukharas or Tusharas were a branch of the Yue-ches (Yuezhi) ^[29], whereas Dr P. C. Bagchi holds that the Yue-ches, Tokharoi/Tokarai and the Tukharas/Tusharas were identical ^[30]. Dr J. C. Vidyalankar believes that the Kushanas or Kanishkas are same as Rishikas ^[31]. Thus, according to above several equations, the Rishikas are also indentifiable with the Tusharas/Kushanas. Sabha Parva of Mahabharata states that the Parama Kambojas, Lohas and the Rishikas were allied tribes ^[32]. Like the "Parama Kambojas", there is branch of Rishikas called Parama Rishikas located in Transoxian ^[33]. On the other hand, based on the syntactical construction of the Mahabharata verse 5.5.15 ^[34] and verse 2.27.25-26 ^[35], the outstanding Sanskrit scholar Ishwa Mishra believes that the Rishikas were a section of the Kambojas i.e. Parama Kambojas. Dr V. S. Aggarwala also relates the Parama Kambojas of the Trans-Pamirs to the Rishikas of Mahabharata ^[36] located in the Shakadvipa (or Scythia) ^[37]. According to Dr B. N. Puri, the Kambojas were a branch of the Tukharas.^[38]. Based on the above Rishika-Kamboja connections, some scholars also claim that the Kambojas were a branch of the Yuezhi themselves ^[39]. Dr Moti Chander also sees a close ethnic connections between the Kambojas and the Yuezhi ^[40][41].

The Rishikas are also stated to be same as the Asioi or Asii of Strabo. The name Asioi/Asii, according to one view ^[42], alludes to their connections with Asva or Assa (horses). Based on the earlier information from Indika of Megasthenes (350 BCE- 290 BCE), Pliny (23 AD – 79 AD) also mentions Osii/Orsi, Asoi, Aseni, Taxillae, Peucolaitae etc among the Indian races living in the upper Indus valley south of Hindukush ^[43][44]. The Taxillae and Peucolaitae are obviously the Gandharans of the Indian traditions while the Asoi, Osii/Orsi and Aseni appear yet other variants of the Assaceni/Aspasioi and Assacani/Assakenoi (Asvayana and Asvakayana of Panini and Katyayana). The Aspasios and Assakenois (q.v.) were important clans of the Kambojas exclusively engaged in horse culture. It is therefore, very likely that the Asioi/Asii or Asiani of Strabo may have been or part of the people of Parama-Kamboja (the bigger and the further branch of the Kambojas and Parama-Rishikas living in Scythia or Shaka-dvipa, across the Hindukush/Himalaya) in Transoxiana region. Thus, the Assakenoi and Aspasioi (the Asvakas) of Swat/Kunar valley appear to have been the earlier migrants from the Transoxian Parama Kambojas/Parama Rishikas.

Epilogue

The foregoing references sufficiently demonstrate that the Kambojas were living on either side of the Hindukush ^{[45][46][47][48][49]}. The cis-Hindukush division was called Kamboja. The trans-Hindukush Kamboja division was known as Parama Kamboja. Thus, like the Uttara-Kurus and Uttara-Madras, the Parama-Kambojas were also located in the trans-Himalayan (paren himavantam..) regions, and were neighbors both to the Uttara Kurus as well as the Uttara Madras. The author of Vayu Purana uses the name Kumuda-dvipa for Kusha-dvipa ^[50].

Ptolemian Komdei is Komed or Komdesh or Kamdesh (?); from Kambodesh (?), probably "Kambojdesh". It is Kiumito or Kumito of Hiun Tsang and Kumed or Kumadh of the Muslim writers, Kiumiche of Wu'kong, Kumi of T'ang and Cambothi, Kambuson and Komedon of Greek writers. Al-Maqidisi in his book Al-Muqhni calls the people of this territory as Kumiji which apparently is equivalent to Sanskrit Kamboj ^[51]. The root Kam of the Sanskrit name Kamboja is also reflected in the Kama valley, a region lying between the Khyber Pass and Jalalabad; in the place names like Kama-daka, Kamma-Shilman, Kama-bela of Kabol; in the Kamdesh or Kambrom, Kamich, Kama and Kamu & Kamatol of the Kunar and Bashgul valleys; and also in the vast expanses of region called Kazal-Kam and Kara-Kam lying on either side of the Oxus, north of Hindukush in parts of Turkmenistan & Uzbekistan. Thus, the Ptolemian terms Kamoi and Komdei or Hiun Tsang's Kiumito exactly also refer to the Trans-Hindukush territories which region is what Mahabharata ^[25] refers to as Parama Kamboja i.e a Kamboja lying beyond the Kamboja of Kabol valley ^[52].

Aitareya Brahmana ^[53] further attests that the trans-Himalyan Uttara Madra and Uttara Kuru nations were republican. As the Param-Kamboja (i.e the original Kamboja) was a close neighbor both to the Uttaramadras as wel as the Uttarakurus in trans-Himalyan territories, it can, therefore, be fairly conjectured that the Parama-Kambojas were also a republican people, most probably following a Rajashabdopajivin (king consul) type of republicanism, where the king was only a title for the commander-in-chief of the military confederation ^[54]. Several republics of the Kambojas are attested in the Mahabharata ^[55]. Kautiliya also attests the Kamboja Sanghas and Corporations ^[56]. The Kambojas were also a self-governing political unit (republic) under the Maurya Emperors.^[57][58].

See also

• Kambojas
• Mahajanapadas
• Kamboja Kingdom
• Parama Kamboja Kingdom
• Rishikas

References

1. ^

   tatah.parama.vikranto Bahlikan.kurunandanah || II.27.22||

   ....................................................................

   Daradan.saha Kambojai.rajayat.paka.shasanih || II.27.23||.

2. ^ . Karna-Rajapuram-gatva-Kambojah-nirjitastava || VII.4.5 ||.
3. ^ Mahabharata II.27.25 of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa: Translated Into English Prose, 1962, p 66, Pratap Chandra Roy; The Mahabharata, Book 2: Sabha Parva, section XXVI, p 58, Kisari Mohan Ganguli, trans. [1883-1896]; Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva, 1945, p 13, Moti Chandra - India.
4. ^ Mahabharata 2.27.25-27.
5. ^ Diodorus: II.35
6. ^ The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa: Translated Into English Prose, 1962, p 66, Pratap Chandra Roy; The Mahabharata, Book 2: Sabha Parva, section XXVI, p 58, Kisari Mohan Ganguli, trans. [1883-1896]; Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva, 1945, p 13, Moti Chandra - India.
7. ^ See refs: Proceedings and Transactions of the All-India Oriental Conference, 1930, p 118, Dr J. C. Vidyalankara; Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva, 1945, p 13, Dr Moti Chandra; Asoka and His Inscriptions, 1968, p 95, Beni Madhab Barua, Ishwar Nath Topa; Prācīna Kamboja, jana aura janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Dr Satyavrat Śāstrī - Kamboja (Pakistan); Cf: The Deeds of Harsha: Being a Cultural Study of Bāṇa's Harshacharita, 1969, p 199, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala. Note: Kirpal Singh surmises that the Kommdei of Ptolemy was the Parama Kamboja of the epic Mahabharata (The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, pp 59, 92, Kirpal Singh).
8. ^ Central Asiatic Provinces of the Mauryan Empire", p 403, H. C. Seth; See also: Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. XIII, 1937, No 3, p. 400; Journal of the Asiatic Society, 1940, p 37, (India) Asiatic Society (Calcutta, Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal - Asia; cf: History and Archeology of India's Contacts with Other Countries from the ... , 176, p 152, Shashi P. Asthana - Social Science; Cf: India and Central Asia, p 25, Dr P. C. Bagchi.
9. ^

   yuktam Parama. Kambojaisturagairhemamalibhih ||10.14.1-2||.

10. ^ See: Mahaniddesa, pp 155, 415.
11. ^ The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India, Volume 4: Kiskindhakanda, p 151, Rosalind Lefeber.
12. ^ Development of Hindu Polity and Political Theories, 1927, p 227, Narayanchandra Banerjee - Political science; Journal, Dept. of Letters, University of Calcutta, University of Calcutta Dept. of Letters - Buddhism - 1920; Inscriptions of Asoka: Translation and Glossary, 1990, p 85, Beni Madhab Barua, Binayendra Nath Chaudhury - Inscriptions, Prakrit; Foundations of Indian Culture, 1984, p 20, Dr Govind Chandra Pande - India.
13. ^ Chandra Chakraverty translates "Parama" in the sense of "Great" and locates the Parama Kambojas with Rishikas & Parama Rishikas. Chakraverty also, accordingly calls the Parama Rishikas as the Great Yuechis. See: Literary History of Ancient India in Relation to Its Racial and Linguistic Affiliations, 1952, p 148, Chandra Chakraberty - Vedas.
14. ^ Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India ..., 1874, p 365,John Muir.
15. ^ Proceedings and Transactions of the All-India Oriental Conference, 1930, p 117.
16. ^ Foundations of Indian Culture, 1990, p 20, Govind Chandra Pande - India.
17. ^ i.e Parama-vanijah = the best merchants. See: Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini, 1989, p 716, trans: Sumitra Mangesh Katre - Sanskrit language.
18. ^

    Kashmir Kashkar Kabuj (=Kambuj) Kabul ko keenu,

    Kashtwar Kulu-Kehlur Kaihal kaho leeno,

    Kamboj Kilmak kathin pal mei kat darey,

    Hai kote Cheen ke katak hano kar kop karare.

    — (See: Charytropakhyana, Triyachritra 217/verse 14, Dasam Granth 2024, Narain Singh, Dr Ajit Singh Aulakh, Publiushrs M/S Bhai Chatter Singh ji & Co).

19. ^ Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, 2000, p 99, edited by Richard J.A. Talbert - History; Neuro-ophthalmology, 2005, p 99 Leonard A. Levin, Anthony C. Arnold.
20. ^ Indian Antiquary, 1923, p 54; Pre Aryan and Pre Dravidian in India, 1993, p 122, Dr Sylvain Lévi, Dr Jean Przyluski, Jules Bloch, Asian Educational Services; Cities and Civilization, 1962, p 172, Govind Sadashiv Ghurye; Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 1, K. D. Sethna; Asiatic Society, Calcutta, Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1956, p 37; Purana, Vol VI, No 2, Jan 1964, pp 207-208; Journal of the Asiatic Society , 1956, p 88, Asiatic Society (Calcutta, Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal); Geographical Data in the Early Purāṇas: A Critical Study, 1972, p 165, Dr M. R. Singh; Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, 2000, p 99, edited by Richard J.A. Talbert - History; Neuro-ophthalmology, 2005, p 99 Leonard A. Levin, Anthony C. Arnold; Purana-vimar'sucika -: Bibliography of Articles on Puranas, 1985, p 133, P. G. Lalye.
21. ^ Geography 6.18.3.
22. ^ See more Refs: Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies, Vol. 5,1999, issue 1 (September), Dr. M. Witzel; Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History, 2005, p 257, Laurie L. Patton, Edwin Bryant; The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: : Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity, 1995, p 326, George Erdosy; Linguistic Aspects of the Aryan non-invasion theory, Part I, Dr. Koenraad Elst, See Link: [1]; The official pro-invasionist argument at last, A review of the Aryan invasion arguments in J. Bronkhorst and M.M. Deshpande: Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia, Dr. Koenraad Elst, See link: [2].
23. ^ Kambojika => Kamboyika => Kamboika =Kamboi.
24. ^ Central Asiatic provinces of the Maurya Empire, p 403, Dr H.C. Seth; See also: Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol XIII, 1937, p 400-403; cf: History and Archaeology of India's Contacts with Other Countries, from Earliest Times to 300 B.C., 1976, p 152, Shashi Asthana; For Kamboja Nomads in Central Asia, Cf also: India and Central Asia, p 25, Dr P. C. Bagchi.
25. ^ ^{a b} Mahabharata 2.27.25.
26. ^ See also: The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 92, Kirpal Singh.
27. ^ Proceedings & Transations of 6th A.I.O Conference, 1930, p 118, Dr J. C. Vidyalankar; Linguistic Survey of India, G. A. Grierson.
28. ^ India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashtadhyayi, 1953, p 321, Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala.
29. ^ Rajatrangini, I, p 136 fn.
30. ^ India and Central Asia, p 24, Dr P. C. Bagchi.
31. ^ See quote in: Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 4, K. D. Sethna.
32. ^ Mahabharata 2.26.25: See: Trans by Kisari Mohan Ganguli [3].
33. ^ taraka maya sankashah Parama Rishika parthayoh || 26 ||.
34. ^

    Shakanam Pahlavana.n cha Daradanam cha ye nripah |

    Kamboja Rishika ye cha pashchim.anupakash cha ye ||5.5.15||

    Trans: The kings of the Shakas, Pahlavas and the Daradas, and the Kamboja-Rishikas live in the west in the Anupa region.
35. ^

    LohanParamaKambojanRishikanuttaran api ||

    sahita.nstanmahAraja vyajayatpakashasanih || 25 ||

    Rishikeshu tu sangramo babhuvAtibhaya.n karah ||

    taraka maya sankashah Parama Rishika parthayoh || 26 ||

    (Mahabharata 2.27.25-26).

36. ^ See: The Deeds of Harsha: Being a Cultural Study of Bāṇa's Harshacharita, 1969, p 199, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala.
37. ^ India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī, 1953, p 64, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala - India.
38. ^ Buddhism in Central Asia, p. 90.
39. ^ Journal of Tamil Studies, 1969, pp 86, 87, International Institute of Tamil Studies - Tamil philology; Also see: International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics: IJDL., 1984, p 348, University of Kerala Dept. of Linguistics - Dravidian languages; India and Central Asia, 1955, p 31-32, Prof P. C. Bagchi.
40. ^ Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva, 1945, p 19, Dr Moti Chandra - India.
41. ^ The Cultural Heritage of India also sees a close ethnic relationship between the Kambojas, the Tukharas (=Rishikas = Yue-chis) and the modern Tajik race. It calls the modern Tajik race to be descendants of the Tukharas and Kambojas, thus assuming Kambojas as a component of the Tukharas or vice-versa (The Cultural Heritage of India: Sri Ramakrishna Centenary Memorial, 1936, p 151). Cf: "The Kambojas indicate the people of Tajikistan speaking Ghalcha..." (See: Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India, 1977, p 94, Dr Moti Chandra). For Kambojas as the ancestors of the Tajiks, Cf: Bhart Bhumi Aur Unke Nivasi, p 313-314, 226, Bhartya Itihaas Ki Mimansa, p 335 by Dr J. C. Vidyalanka; Prācīna Kamboja, jana aura janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, pp 164-65, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Dr Satyavrat Śāstrī.
42. ^ Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, Reprint (2002), Vol I, p. 64. Also see: pp. 51-54, 87, 95; Vol-2, P 2, James Tod; The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia, 1885, p 196, Edward Balfour; The racial history of India, 1944, p 814-15, Chandra Chakraberty - Ethnology; Literary History of Ancient India in Relation to Its Racial and Linguistic Affiliations, 1953, pp 148, 152, Chandra Chakraberty - Sanskrit literature.
43. ^ See: List of Indian Races, p 129 of Ancient India as described by Megasthenes and Arrian, 1877, , a tr. of the fragments of the Indika of Megasthenes collected by Schwanbeck and of the 1st part of the Indika of Arrian, by J.W. McCrindle. With intr., notes. Repr., with additions, from the 'Indian antiquary', . Megasthenes, Flavius Arrianus, Translated by John Watson McCrindle.
44. ^ Pliny's Natural History, 1848, p 126, Philemon Holland, Wernerian Club, Wernerian Club. NOTE: Pliny only borrowed the information earlier prepared by Megasthenese who is believed to have been Greek Ambassdor in the court of Chandragupta Maurya after the Chandragupta Maurya had won war against Seleucid in about 302 BCE.
45. ^ Geographical Data in the Early Purāṇas: A Critical Study, 1972, p 168, Dr M. R. Singh.
46. ^ Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 1, Seq., K. D. Sethna.
47. ^ Purana, Vol VI, No 2, Jan 1964, pp 207-214 .
48. ^ Asoka and His Inscriptions: By Beni Madhab Barua. 3d Ed, 1968, p 95, Beni Madhab Barua, Ishwar Nath Topa.
49. ^ Mahabharata 2.27.23;. Mahabharata 2.27.25.
50. ^ Vayu I.48.34-36
51. ^ See: Studies in Indian History and Civilization, Agra, p 351; India and the World, 1964, p 71, Dr Buddha Prakash; India and Central Asia, p 25, Dr P. C. Bagchi; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, pp 46-47, 300 Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, pp 159, 59, S Kirpal Singh.
52. ^ The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, pp 159, 92, 59, S Kirpal Singh; cf: These Kamboj People, 1979, 67, K. S. Dardi; cf: History of Punjab, Vol I, p 182, Dr L. M. Joshi, Dr Fauja Singh.
53. ^ Aiterya Brahmana VIII/14
54. ^ Hindu Polity, p 52, Dr K. P. Jayswal; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 260-66, Dr J. L. Kamboj.
55. ^ Kambojana cha ye ganah...Mahabharata(7/91/39).
56. ^

    i.e Kambhoja. Sauraastra.ksatriya.shreny.adayo vartta.shastra.upajivinah ||11.1.04|| .

57. ^ Hindu Polity, A Constitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 1978, p 117-121, Dr K. P. Jayswal; Ancient India, 2003, pp 839-40, Dr V. D. Mahajan; Northern India, p 42, Dr Mehta Vasisitha Dev Mohan etc
58. ^ A History of Zoroastrianism, 1991, p 136, Mary Boyce, Frantz Grenet.

Books and Periodicals

• Geographical Data in early Puranas, 1972, Dr M. R. Singh.
• Problems of Ancient India, 2000, K. D. Sethna.
• The Puranas, Vol VI, , No 1, 1964.
• Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, Dr J. L. Kamboj.
• These Kamboj People, 1979, K. S Dardi
• Mahabharata
• Ramayana
• Ptolemy’s Geography
• Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World: Map-By-Map Directory (2 Volume Set) , 2000, Richard J. A. Talbert.
• Foundations of Indian Culture, 1984, Govind Chandra Pande - History
• Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India ..., 1874, p 365, John Muir
• Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva, 1945, p 11, Dr Moti Chandra
• Proceedings and Transactions of the All-India Oriental Conference, 1930, p 118
• Inscriptions of Asoka: Translation and Glossary, 1990, p 86, Beni Madhab Barua, Binayendra Nath Chaudhury - Inscriptions, Prakrit
• Studies in Indian History and Civilization, 1962, p 300, Dr Buddha Prakash - India
• The Deeds of Harsha: Being a Cultural Study of Bāṇa's Harshacharita, 1969, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala
• Geography of the Mahabharata, 1986, Bhagwan Singh Suryavanshi - India
• The Greco-Sunga Period of Indian History, Or, the North-West India...1973, Mehta Vasishtha Dev Mohan - India