phimosis

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An erect penis with phimosis

Phimosis (fī-mō'sĭs, fĭ-), from the Greek phimos (φῑμός ("muzzle")), is a condition where, in men, the male foreskin cannot be fully retracted from the head of the penis. The term may also refer to clitoral phimosis in women, whereby the clitoral hood cannot be retracted, limiting exposure of the glans clitoris.^[1]

In the neonatal period, it is rare for the foreskin to be retractable; Huntley et al. state that "non-retractability can be considered normal for males up to and including adolescence."^[2] Rickwood, as well as other authors, has suggested that true phimosis is over-diagnosed due to failure to distinguish between normal developmental non-retractability and a pathological condition (a condition deemed a problem).^[3] Some authors use the terms "physiologic" and "pathologic" to distinguish between these types of phimosis;^[4] others use the term "non-retractile foreskin" to distinguish this developmental condition from (pathologic) phimosis.^[3]

Pathological (acquired) phimosis has several causes. Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus (thought to be the same condition as balanitis xerotica obliterans), is regarded as a common (or even the main^[5]) cause of pathological phimosis.^[6] Other causes may include: scarring caused by forcible retraction of the foreskin,^[4] and balanitis.^[7] Beauge found that patients with phimosis had masturbation practices that differed from the usual pulling down of the foreskin that mimics sexual intercourse.^[8] Some studies found phimosis to be a risk factor for urinary retention^[9] and carcinoma of the penis.^[10] Common treatments include steroid creams and circumcision.^[11]

Natural development of the foreskin

At birth, the inner layer of the foreskin is sealed to the glans of the penis. This attachment forms "early in fetal development and provide[s] a protective cocoon for the delicate developing glans."^[12] The foreskin is usually non-retractable in infancy and early childhood, when the developing glans needs complete protection from the mechanical trauma of the nappy and clothing, and the chemical trauma of ammoniacal urine.^[12]

Until recently, knowledge of the development of the foreskin has been a neglected subject. Physicians often saw the natural unretractability of the foreskin in infancy as pathological and recommended circumcision. Often it was used as justification for routine infant circumcision.^[12] Patients with phimosis can develop into adulthood without any complications.

During the 20th century studies were released which furthered our understanding of the normal development of the foreskin.^[13][14][15]

The American Academy of Pediatrics and the Canadian Pediatric Society state that no attempt should be made to retract the foreskin.^[16][17] Age is reportedly a factor in non-retractability: according to Huntley et al. the foreskin is reportedly retractable in approximately 50% of cases at 1 year of age, 90% by 3 years of age, and 99% by age 17. These authors argue that, unless scarring or other abnormality is present, non-retractibility may "be considered normal for males up to and including adolescence."^[2] Hill states that full retractability of the foreskin may not be achieved until late childhood or early adulthood.^[18] Cantu states that acquired phimosis may be caused by forceful retraction, due to the formation of scar tissue.^[19]

Although the rate of surgical treatment of phimosis (usually circumcision) is falling, some pediatric urologists have argued that many physicians continue to have trouble distinguishing developmental non-retractility from pathological phimosis, and that phimosis is overdiagnosed.^[3][20][21]

Phimosis is sometimes used as a justification for circumcision,^[21][22] so that it will be covered by a national health system or insurance plan. The definition may be stretched by a physician for an older child; particularly where (as in North America), post-neonatal circumcision is usually outpatient surgery by a pediatric urologist, more expensive than the neonatal procedure.^[21] Most pediatricians^[who?] do not consider it a compelling argument for routine neonatal circumcision.^[23] While circumcision prevents phimosis, at least 10 to 20 healthy infants must be circumcised for each prevented case of potential phimosis according to some incidence statistics^{[citation needed]}.

Pathological/Acquired phimosis

Pathological phimosis (as opposed to the natural non-retractability of the foreskin) in childhood is rare and the causes are varied. Some cases may arise from balanitis (inflammation of the glans penis), perhaps due in turn to inappropriate efforts to separate and retract an infant foreskin. Other cases of non-retractile foreskin may be caused by preputial stenosis or narrowness that prevents retraction, by fusion of the foreskin with the glans penis in children, or by frenulum breve, which prevents retraction. In some cases a cause may not be clear, or it may be difficult to distinguish physiological phimosis from pathological if an infant appears to be in pain with urination or has obvious ballooning of the foreskin with urination or apparent discomfort. However, even ballooning does not always indicate urinary obstruction.^[24]

Phimosis in older children and adults can vary in severity, with some men able to retract their foreskin partially ("relative phimosis"), and some completely unable to retract their foreskin even in the flaccid state ("full phimosis").

When phimosis develops in an uncircumcised adult who was previously able to retract his foreskin, it is nearly always due to a pathological cause, and is far more likely to cause problems for the man.

Beaugé noted that unusual masturbation practices, such as lying face down on a bed and rubbing the penis against the mattress, may cause phimosis. Patients are advised to stop the exacerbating masturbation techniques and are encouraged to masturbate by moving the foreskin up and down so as to mimic more closely the action of sexual intercourse. After giving this advice Beaugé noted not once did he have to recommend circumcision.^[8][25]

One cause of acquired, pathological phimosis is chronic balanitis xerotica obliterans (BXO), a skin condition of unknown origin that causes a whitish ring of indurated tissue (a cicatrix) to form near the tip of the prepuce. This inelastic tissue prevents retraction. Some evidence suggests that BXO may be the same disease as lichen sclerosus et atrophicus of the vulva in females.^[26] Infectious, inflammatory, and hormonal factors have all been implicated or proposed as contributing factors.

Phimosis may occur after other types of chronic inflammation (e.g., balanoposthitis), repeated catheterization, or forceful foreskin retraction.^[19]

Phimosis may also arise in diabetics due to the presence of glucose in their urine giving rise to infection in the foreskin.^[27]

Potential complications of acquired phimosis

Chronic complications of acquired (pathological) phimosis can include discomfort or pain during urination or sexual intercourse. The urinary stream can be impeded, resulting in dribbling and wetness after urination. Harmful urinary obstruction is possible but uncommon. Pain may occur when a partially retractable foreskin retracts during intercourse and chokes the glans penis. A totally non-retractable foreskin is rarely painful. There is some evidence that phimosis may be a risk factor for penile cancer.^[28]

The most acute complication is paraphimosis (Paraphimosis image). In this acute condition, the glans is swollen and painful, and the foreskin is immobilized by the swelling in a partially retracted position. The proximal penis is flaccid.

Treatment of phimosis

Phimosis in infancy is nearly always physiological, and needs to be treated only if it is causing obvious problems such as urinary discomfort or obstruction. In older children and men, phimosis should be distinguished from frenulum breve, which more often requires surgery, though the two conditions can occur together.

If phimosis in older children or adults is not causing acute and severe problems, nonsurgical measures may be effective. Choice of treatment is often determined by whether the patient (or doctor) views circumcision as an option of last resort to be avoided or as the preferred course. Some men with nonretractile foreskins have no difficulties and see no need for correction.

Non surgical methods include:

• Application of topical steroid cream for 4-6 weeks to the narrow part of the foreskin is relatively simple, less expensive than surgical treatments and highly effective.^[21][29][30] It has replaced circumcision as the preferred treatment method for some physicians in the U.K. National Health Service.^[31][32]
• Stretching of the foreskin can be accomplished manually. Skin that is under tension expands by growing additional cells. A permanent increase in size occurs by gentle stretching over a period of time. The treatment is non-traumatic and non-destructive. Manual stretching may be carried out without the aid of a medical doctor. The stretching can also be accomplished with balloons placed under the foreskin skin under anaesthesia,^[33] or with a tool.^[34] The tissue expansion promotes the growth of new skin cells to permanently expand the narrow preputial ring that prevents retraction.
• Beaugé treated several hundred adolescents by advising them to change their masturbation habits to closing their hand over their penis and moving it back and forth. Retraction of the foreskin was generally achieved after four weeks and he stated that he never had to refer one for surgery.^[8][25]

Some may opt for surgery treatment straight away. This consists of the removal of the foreskin or cutting a slit in the foreskin:

• Circumcision is sometimes performed for pathological phimosis, and is effective.

• Preputioplasty, in which a limited dorsal slit with transverse closure is made along the constricting band of skin^[35][36] can be an effective alternative to full circumcision.^[21] It has the advantage of only limited pain and a short time of healing relative to circumcision, and avoids cosmetic effects.

Incidence

A number of medical reports of phimosis incidence have been published over the years. They vary widely because of the difficulties of distinguishing physiological phimosis (developmental nonretractility) from pathological phimosis, definitional differences, ascertainment problems, and the multiple additional influences on post-neonatal circumcision rates in cultures where most newborn males are circumcised. A commonly cited incidence statistic for pathological phimosis is 1% of uncircumcised males.^{[19][37],[20]} When phimosis is simply equated with nonretractility of the foreskin after age 3 years, considerably higher incidence rates have been reported.^[14][38] Others have described incidences in adolescents and adults as high as 50%, though it is likely that many cases of physiological phimosis or partial nonretractility were included.^[39]

Phimosis in history

• According to some accounts, phimosis prevented Louis XVI of France from impregnating his wife, Marie Antoinette, for the first seven years of their marriage. She was 14 and he was 15 when they married in 1770. However, the presence and nature of his genital anomaly is not considered certain, and some scholars (Vincent Cronin and Simone Bertiere) assert that surgical repair would have been mentioned in the records of his medical treatments if it had occurred.^{[citation needed]}
• US President James Garfield was assassinated by Charles Guiteau in 1881. The autopsy report for Guiteau indicated that he had phimosis. At the time, this led to the simplistic speculation that Guiteau's murderous behavior was due to phimosis-induced insanity.^[40]
• Josef Fritzl had this condition when he was a child, according to a court psychologist. ^[41]

See also

• paraphimosis
• preputioplasty
• Medical analysis of circumcision
• frenulum breve
• David Reimer

References

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Phimosis

• Our son is not circumcised. When will his foreskin retract? by American Academy of Pediatrics
• Normal development of the foreskin: Birth through age 18 by CIRP
• Conservative Treatment of Phimosis: Alternatives to Radical Circumcision by CIRP
• Male Initiation and the Phimosis Taboos
• Encyclopedia of Phimosis Statistics
• NORM-UK: Information about conservative treatment of phimosis
• The Manitoban article on phimosis and frenulum breve

Pictures

• Picture of a penis with phimosis
• Pictures of a penis with fully retracted foreskin after successful treatment of phimosis