Plants

Given below in alphabetical order are the plants mentioned in the Bible. It is to be noted that translators differ as to the precise identification of some of them.

Acacia Called shittah in Hebrew, the word given as acacia in the English Bible is identified with several species of this tree growing in Palestine. The most common species found today in the Sinai Peninsula is a thorny tree with yellow flowers. Its trunk is generally thin and this makes it difficult to identify it with the acacia of the Bible from which the wide boards of the tabernacle were made (Ex 26:16).

The acacia tree and its wood are mentioned almost exclusively in connection with the ark of the testimony, the altar and the tabernacle built by the Children of Israel (Ex 25:10, 13; 26:15; 36:20; 38:1, 6 etc.).

Several biblical place-names reflect the Hebrew name of the tree e.g., Abel Shittim, Beth Shittah and Beth Shittim, probably areas where the acacia was especially abundant. According to Isaiah 41:19 the acacia growing in the wilderness is part of God's promise to the Israelites.

Almond A tree common to the Near East, growing wild or cultivated in most Mediterranean countries. Its pink-white flowers, arranged in pairs, appear before the leaves, as early as January or the beginning of February. The almond fruit has an oblong shape, rounded at one end and pointed at the other, and has always been considered a delicacy. The kernel produces oil.

When Joseph's brothers returned to Egypt with Benjamin, their father Jacob included almonds among the gifts he sent with them (Gen 43:11). The cup of the branches of the gold lampstand of the tabernacle was designed like almond blossoms (Ex 25:33-34; 37:19-20). Aaron's rod was an almond-tree branch which miraculously blossomed overnight to yield ripe almonds (Num 17:23). In Ecclesiastes, the white head of old men is compared to the blossoming almond tree (Ecc 12:5).

Almug A special kind of wood supplied to Solomon by Hiram of Tyre for the construction of the Temple. It was also used to make musical instruments (I Kgs 10:11-12). The almug wood imported from Ophir, has generally been thought to refer to sandalwood.

Aloes See Spices and Perfumes

Anise A plant of the parsley family which is cultivated for its seedlike fruits. Anise is mentioned in Matthew 23:23 as one of the plants for which the Pharisees were very punctilious in paying tithes while they failed, however, to observe moral values. Many scholars believe that anise here refers to dill.

Apple The apple mentioned in the Bible has not been identified with certainty. The apple tree is described as a shady tree bearing fruit sweet to the taste; it is referred to poetically for its fragrance and beauty (Prov 25:11; Song 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5). In art and in later literature, the tree of knowledge in Genesis was interpreted as referring to the apple tree, but it is not identified as such in the Bible.

Balm See Spices and Perfumes

Balsam See Spices and Perfumes

Barley An annual grain closely related to wheat and a most important source of food for man and beast. It was sown in outlying saline lands where wheat could not be cultivated. Barley is mentioned together with wheat and other field crops, among which it occupies a prominent place (Deut 8:8; Is 28:25; Ezek 4:9; Joel 1:11, etc.). Listed among the seven kinds of agricultural produce with which Israel was blessed (Deut 8:8), barley was one of the country's exports (II Chr 2:15); it also served as a cereal offering (Num 5:15; Ezek 45:13).

Barley ripens early (Ex 9:31) and its harvest begins in the month of Nisan (March-April), the omer ("sheaf") firstfruit offering being taken from the barley field on the day following the first Sabbath after Passover (Lev 23:9 ff). In Ruth 1:22 and II Samuel 21:9, the barley harvest serves as an agricultural time marker, as in the Gezer calendar.

Bread made from barley, poorer in quality and taste than wheat, was considered poor man's bread, and II Kings 7:1, 16, 18 puts its price at half that of wheat (cf Rev 6:6). Barley was used as fodder (I Kgs 4:28). Several of these OT characteristics of barley are recalled in John 6:1-14 where five barley loaves and two fish fed the 5,000.

Beans A nutritious food grown in pods from a leguminous plant. Beans are mentioned twice in the Bible: along with other foods they were brought to David at Mahanaim during Absalom's revolt (II Sam 17:28), while in Ezekiel's portrayal of the siege of Jerusalem, beans are used as an ingredient for bread.

Bitter Herbs Bitter herbs were eaten along with the paschal lamb prior to the Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt (Ex 12:8; Num 9:11). In later rabbinic literature they were interpreted as a symbolic reminder of the bitter times that the Israelites had during their long period of bondage and slavery. The Hebrew noun most probably refers to a variety of different herbs.

Briar, Brier, Bramble Any of several wild prickly plants. A number of different Hebrew words are variously translated as briar, thorn and bramble since the plants they refer to have not been identified exactly. The briar symbolizes that which is worthless or evil (Mic 7:4), and is used figuratively of the enemies of Israel (Ezek 28:24) and the land (Is 5:6; 7:23-25; 55:13).

Broom A shrub which grows in the desert. Elijah sheltered in its shade (I Kgs 19:4-5). The broom's roots and foliage were employed for fuel (Ps 120:4) and food (Job 30:4). Some translations render "juniper" rather than broom.

Bulrush Common name for several kinds of tall grass growing by the water, used to translate two different Hebrew words and sometimes given as "reed". In at least one instance (the story of the infant Moses, Exodus 2:3), it has been suggested that it refers to the cyprus papyrus, the celebrated papyrus tree of Egypt, now almost extinct.

Calamus See Spices and perfumes

Cane See Spices and perfumes

Carob See Pods below

Cassia See Spices and perfumes

Cedar Tree of the pine family indigenous to Lebanon. The cedar tree is mentioned some 75 times in the OT. It was used in various religious ceremonies together with hyssop and scarlet (for the cleansing of lepers and their houses Lev 14:4, 6, 49, 51-52; and for the laws of purification Num 19:6). Cedar wood was imported to build Solomon's Temple (I Kgs 5:6; 6:9, 15-16, 18, 20, 36), being used in the supporting pillars and beams (I Kgs 7:2) and paneling (I Kgs 6:9, 15) and was "carved with ornamental buds and open flowers" (I Kgs 6:18). One of Solomon's buildings was called the House of the Forest of Lebanon because of its three rows of 15 cedar pillars (I Kgs 7:2-5).

Cedars were a symbol of strength and beauty and as such are used to demonstrate the power of the Lord: "The voice of the Lord breaks the cedars, yes the Lord splinters the cedars of Lebanon" (Ps 29:5; cf Is 2:13; Zech 11:1).

Chestnut A tree mentioned twice in the OT – first in the episode of Jacob and the spotted sheep (Gen 30:25-43) and then in Ezekiel, where the "chestnut trees" are compared to the greatness of Assyria (Ezek 31:3-8). Many scholars believe both references denote the plane tree, since chestnut trees are not indigenous to the area.

CINNAMON See SPICES AND PERFUMES

CITRON WOOD One of the items mentioned in the prophecy of the fall of Babylon in Revelation 18:12; it was highly valued in biblical times for cabinet making.

CORIANDER A plant of the umbelliferous family, yielding small, globular seeds with an aromatic flavor. It is mentioned twice in the OT, in both cases to describe manna.

CUCUMBER This very common vegetable is mentioned twice in the scriptures. while roaming the wilderness of Sinai, the Children of Israel recalled Egypt and the melons, leeks, onions, garlic and cucumbers they had eaten there (Num 11:5). In Isaiah's vision of a desolate Jerusalem he compares the city to a hut in a cucumber field (Is 1:8).

CUMIN, CUMMIN A caraway-like seed, commonly cultivated and used as spice and medicine. It is only mentioned once in the OT, when the prophet Isaiah, expounding on the teaching of the Lord, gives a detailed description of the planting and threshing of the cumin (Is 28:25, 27). In the NT, Matthew refers to it in his condemnation of the Pharisees "who pay tithe of mint and anise and cumin and have neglected the weightier matters of the law" (Matt 23:23).

Cypress Several different Hebrew words are rendered as cypress in the NKJV (RSV: "pine"); an evergreen coniferous tree with dark overlapping leaves. Hiram king of Tyre sent King Solomon cypress logs for the Temple (I Kgs 5:8, 10; 6:15, 34; II Chr 3:5). Isaiah prophesied that God would cut down the cedars of Lebanon in order to punish Sennacherib king of Assyria (II Kgs 19:23), and Babylon (Is 14:8). He reassured the Israelites of God's promise to protect the Children of Israel: the cypress tree will grow in the desert (Is 41:19) and "instead of the thorn shall come up the cypress tree" (Is 55:13; cf 60:13).

Dill See Anise above

Fig A fruit-bearing tree indigenous to Palestine. It was the first tree referred to in the OT: "Then the eyes of both of them [Adam and Eve] were opened, and they knew that they were naked, and they sewed fig leaves together and made themselves coverings" (Gen 3:7). It is listed among the seven species with which the land of Canaan was blessed (Deut 8:8). Figs were used to make cakes (I Sam 25:18) and had curative properties: a poultice of figs was used to relieve King Hezekiah's sores (Is 38:21). It was also a symbol of peace and prosperity (I Kgs 4:25; II Kgs 18:31; Is 36:16; Joel 2:22; Mic 4:4; Hag 2:19; Zech 3:10), as well as fertility and as such was used by Jesus in one of his parables (Luke 13:6-9). It appears in Jotham's fable of the trees (Judg 9:7-15) in Jeremiah's parable about the exiles (Jer chap. 24) and in the story of Jesus cursing the fig tree (Matt 21:18-22; Mark 11:13-14, 20-24).

Flax The oldest textile plant of the Near East, flax and its products were of great importance to the ancient world. The earliest biblical references are to the Egyptian crop that was destroyed by the plague of hail (Ex 9:31), and the drying stalks that provided a protective covering for the two spies on Rahab's Jericho rooftop (Josh 2:6). The combed fibers were used for lamp wicks (Is 42:3; 43:17), ropes (Ezek 40:3) and woven linen (Jer 13:1; Ezek 44:17-18; Prov 31:13). One of the qualities of the exemplary wife described in Proverbs 31:13 is that she looks for wool and flax and works with them with willing hands. Promiscuous Israel, in the image of a harlot, is said to have received her wool and her linen from her paramours; God will later take them away from her (Hos 2:5, 9).

The blue flowered plant, which grows to a height of 2 to 3 feet (c. 1m), is pulled from the ground when its seeds are ripe. The stalks are dried and its fibres combed while linseed oil is extracted from the shiny seeds.

FRANKINCENSESee INCENSE; SPICES AND PERFUMES

GALBANUMSee SPICES AND PERFUMES

GALLA poisonous and bitter herb used to signify bitterness and misfortune (Ps 69:21; Jer 8:14); and often mentioned together with wormwood in this context (Lam 3:19; Amos 6:12). In the Song of Moses those who rebel against the word of God are condemned: "their grapes are grapes of gall".

GARLIC A bulbed vegetable. The pungent garlic was among the foods the Israelites craved for after the Exodus from Egypt (Num 11:5-6).

GOPHER WOOD Mentioned only once in the Bible as the material from which God instructed Noah to build the ark. A possible identification with the conifer or cypress has been suggested.

GRAPE, GRAPEVINE See VINE, VINEYARD

GOURDS In Hebrew, the distinction is made between the feminine plural (pakka'ot) and the masculine plural (pakka'im). The former is mentioned only once, in II Kings 4:39 as a wild, poisonous fruit that was added to a pot of stew during time of famine. The stew was rendered edible by the prophet Elisha (II Kgs 4:38-41). It is believed that this strain of gourd might have been of the colocynth plant, a relative of the watermelon. The latter, translated as "ornamental buds", decorated the cedar paneling in Solomon's Temple (I Kgs 6:18). The plant, translated as "gourd" by the AV in Jonah 4:6ff, is in fact the castor.

HEMLOCK A poisonous plant. The name occurs only once in the Scriptures: "Thus judgment springs up like hemlock in the furrows of the field" (Hos 10:4). It may refer, however, to the wild poppy.

HENNA See SPICES AND PERFUMES

HYSSOP A small, strongly aromatic shrub which grows between cliffs and rocks; it has been identified with Majoraner Syriaca, a plant of the Labiatae family.

Hyssop is referred to in the Book of Exodus where, the Israelites, in order to distinguish themselves from the Egyptians, used the shrub to smear blood on their doorposts: when God plagued the Egyptians, the marked houses of the Israelites were left unharmed (Ex 12:22).

Other biblical references mention the hyssop together with the cedar. The Bible describes King Solomon, the wisest of all men as one who knew everything from "the cedar tree of Lebanon to the hyssop that springs out of the wall" (I Kgs 4:33). Both hyssop and cedar were used in preparing the ashes of the red heifer (Num 19:6) and in the sprinkling of water of purification (Num 19:18). Both were also employed in a house plagued by leprosy (Lev 14:49) and in the water of purification for the leper (Lev 14:4).

Psalms (51:7) contains another reference to the symbolic use of hyssop in a purification ceremony. According to Hebrews 9:19 hyssop was sprinkled over the people at the sealing of the covenant at Sinai. Hyssop with sour wine was sprinkled on Jesus while he was on the cross (John 19:29).

JUNIPER A low-growing tree found in the Sinai and the desert of Edom, called aroer in Hebrew. The Moabite city Aroer might have been named after this tree (cf Jer 48:6). The "shrub in the desert" mentioned in Jeremiah 17:6 is thought by some scholars to refer to the juniper.

It is to be noted that in the AV a different Hebrew word is translated as juniper, while the RSV gives "wild ass" for aroer in Jeremiah 48:6.

LEEK Vegetable of the onion family, which was craved for by the Israelites in the wilderness following the Exodus from Egypt.

LENTIL A legume, reddish-brown in color. Esau traded his birthright for a pot of lentil stew prepared by his twin brother, Jacob, and thus received his epithet edom("red", Gen 25:29-34). Lentils were among the food delivered to David at Mahanaim (II Sam 17:27-29), and Ezekiel made a bread of lentils and other grains when he simulated the siege of Jerusalem (Ezek 4:9).

LILY The word lily may refer to any one of several different flowers, among them, the narcissus, wild tulip, crocus and anemone. The capitals of the two pillars Jachin and Boaz, in Solomon's Temple were in the form of a lily (I Kgs 7:19, 22) as was the rim of the molten sea (I Kgs 7:26; II Chr 4:5). The "lily of the valleys" is referred to in Song of Solomon 2:1 (cf Song 6:11) and the lily is mentioned several other times in these love poems (Song 2:2, 16; 4:5; 5:13; 6:2-3; 7:2). In Hosea's image of the restoration of Israel, the nation will blossom as a lily (Hos 14:5).

The lily was a symbol of beauty, and as such was employed in the imagery of Jesus: "Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow: they neither toil nor spin; and yet I say to you that even Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these" (Matt 6:28-29; cf Luke 12:27).

LOTUS A thorny shrub or tree with small oval leaves, which is found in dry places. The word lotus occurs twice, but its identification is disputed and "lotus" may refer to the lily.

MALLOW This plant which has been identified as the shrubby orache, grows in the salt marshes of the Dead Sea and the Mediterranean. "Sons of vile men", who were "gaunt from want and famine" (Job 30:3-4, 8) ate from the mallow plant.

MANDRAKE A stemless perennial herb with a thick, branched taproot, blue or white winter flowers, and edible, plum-shaped orange-red springtime fruit. The fragrant plant (Song 7:13) has purgative, narcotic and emetic qualities, and was employed as an aphrodisiac and fertility and from early times. This explains why the barren Rachel made an exchange with Leah for some mandrakes collected by Reuben (Gen 30:14-16).

MANNA See article MANNA

MELON A fruit mentioned only once in the OT. It was indigenous to Egypt: when the Children of Israel were suffering from hunger in the wilderness of Sinai they recalled the good foods, among them melons, which they had eaten in Egypt.

MILLET A grass seed cultivated for making a poor quality of bread. Ezekiel used millet seeds along with other grains to make a bread which symbolized the siege of Jerusalem (Ezek 4:9). Millet is also mentioned as an item of trade between Judah and Israel and Tyre in Ezekiel's lamentation for Tyre (Ezek 27:17).

MINT A sweet-smelling herb whose leaves and stems contain an aromatic oil employed for medicinal and food-seasoning purposes. The name occurs only twice in the NT in connection with the tithe on various plants (Matt 23:23; Luke 11:42).

MULBERRY Growing to a height of 20 feet (6m), the black mulberry tree, common in Israel, has a large crown, large lobed leaves, and produces a sweet, fleshy fruit. Jesus mentioned the mulberry tree in a parable on faith (Luke 17:6; sycamine in some editions).

The tree mentioned in II Samuel 5:23-24 and I Chronicles 14:14-15, is usually translated as mulberry, but the identification is still not exactly known.

MUSTARD In parables concerning the Kingdom of God and faith, Jesus drew upon the mustard plant, "which, when it is sown on the ground, is smaller than all the seeds on earth; but when it is sown, it grows up and becomes greater than all herbs, and shoots out large branches" (Mark 4:31-32). The black mustard is the most common of the several varieties found in the Near East; it grows rapidly, up to 15 feet (c. 5m) in height.

MYRRH See SPICES AND PERFUMES

MYRTLE An aromatic evergreen shrub. Myrtle branches were among the greenery covering the booths during the festival of Tabernacles (Neh 8:15), and its ceremonial use remains incorporated within the holiday as one of the "four species" (along with the willow branches, palm leaf and ethrog). In Isaiah's prophecy of future restoration "the myrtle and the oil tree" will flourish in the desert (Is 41:19) and "instead of the brier shall come up the myrtle tree" (Is 55:13). Zechariah, in one of his visions, sees "the angel of the Lord, who stood among the myrtle trees" (Zech 1:11). The original name of Queen Esther was Hadassah, which is the feminine form of the Hebrew word for myrtle (Est 2:7).

NETTLE Two different Hebrew words are used to refer to this wild plant, known for its covering of stinging hairs, which release a toxic liquid upon contact. One is thought to be wild mustard, while the other is accepted specifically as nettle. Both are used to describe scenes of neglect and poverty; the passages in Isaiah and Hosea highlight destruction as well.

NUT When Jacob's sons went down to Egypt a second time, Jacob told them to take a present of "some of the best fruits of the land" for the Egyptian governor who, unknown to them, was their brother Joseph (Gen 43:11). Included with the gift of balm, honey, spices and myrrh were pistachio nuts and almonds. The tree from which pistachio nuts grow is found in the rocky areas of Palestine and Syria. The "garden of nuts" mentioned in the Song of Solomon was probably a plantation of walnuts.

OAK A tree noted for its size and strength. The Amorite "was as strong as the oaks" (Amos 2:9). In Isaiah 6:13, the future remnant of Judah is compared to the stump of an oak tree. Idol worship was common in oak groves (Ezek 6:13), and Hosea charged the Children of Israel with burning incense under oak trees (Hos 4:13).

OLIVE An evergreen tree, which grows in all lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea. In Deuteronomy 8:8 the olive is listed as one of the seven plants characteristic of the promised land (cf Deut 6:11; 28:40). The olive tree is regarded in the Bible as a thing of beauty (Hos 14:6); hence Israel is personified as a leafy olive tree, beautiful with ripe fruit (Jer 11:16). The simile, "Your children like olive plants all around your table" (Ps 128:3), is based upon the observation that shoots springing from the roots of the olive tree protect the parent tree and, like children, survive the demise of the parent. In the Book of Job the death of the wicked is compared to the olive tree, which casts off "his blossom" in the spring (Job 15:33). The return of the dove to Noah's ark bearing in her mouth an olive branch (Gen 8:11) suggests the renewal of life after the deluge. This image then came to symbolize peace. According to Nehemiah 8:15 olive branches were among the species used in building the festival booths on the Feast of Tabernacles in the time of Ezra.

The most characteristic function of the olive in the biblical era was the extraction of oil from its ripe fruit. This oil was burnt for illumination (Ex 25:6; 27:20; Lev 24:2), and employed in cosmetics and anointing (Ex 30:25). It was an ingredient in food for human consumption and in certain obligatory (Ex 29:40; Num 28:5) and free-will offerings to the Lord (Lev 2:1-7). The finest grade of olive oil, called "pressed oil", was a major Israelite export from the reign of King Solomon (I Kgs 5:11; II Chr 2:14-15; Ezra 3:7; Hos 12:1).

Paul compares Gentile Christianity to a wild olive branch, which has been grafted on to a cultivated olive tree (i.e. Israel: Rom chap. 11). See OIL

ONION Member of the lily family and relative of the leek and the garlic, it was one of the foods craved by the Israelites in the wilderness.

ONYCHA One of the ingredients in the incense used exclusively in the sanctuary; its origins remain unknown. Some think that onycha was derived from the closing valve flaps of certain mollusks. Others, questioning such unclean origins, hold that it was a vegetable product.

PALM The date palm is a tall, stately tree which grows in Palestine's coastal plain and the Jordan Valley. Its physical attributes, such as its upright stature and towering height, inspired the Psalmist to use it as a simile for the righteous man (Ps 92:12) and the lover in the Song of Solomon for his beloved (Song 7:7). Several women in the Bible are called Tamar, which is the Hebrew for the palm tree; the word also figures in place-names such as Baal Tamar (Judg 20:33), Hazezon Tamar (Gen 14:7) and Tadmor (I Kgs 9:18). Jericho is known as the city of palms (Deut 34:3). The palm branch is one of the four species with which the Israelites are commanded to celebrate the Feast of Tabernacles (Lev 23:40). According to rabbinic tradition, the honey with which the land of Israel was blessed (e.g. Deut 8:8) was date honey. Date wine was also made in antiquity. Palm trees were grown in the vicinity of the Essene settlement at Qumran. Pliny the Elder (1st century A.D.) praised the dates of Judea, as the best known to him.

PAPYRUS A type of reed. Scholars think that the bulrushes mentioned in Exodus 2:3 refer to the papyrus. Papyrus was used in ancient Egypt in the construction of light boats or canoes because of the shortage of wood (Is 18:2). It was also a common writing material in Egypt from the 3rd millennium B.C. until well into the 1st millennium A.D. II John verse 12 refers to paper which was made from papyrus.

PINE A member of the conifer family of trees. The identification of conifers in the Bible, aside from the cedar of Lebanon, is a matter of dispute among botanists. It has been suggested that the pine trees mentioned in Isaiah might refer to fir, plane, or juniper trees.

PISTACHIO See NUT above

PODS Most probably the seed vessel of the carob tree. The word occurs only once, in the parable of the prodigal son (Luke 15:16) as a foodstuff eaten by the swine. In rabbinic sources carob husks were frequently mentioned as a food of livestock, for sheep and goats and beasts of burden. Later referred to as "St John's Bread" on the mistaken assumption that John the Baptist would not have eaten locusts.

POMEGRANATE Fruit with purple-red rind and pink juicy seeds which came to symbolize agricultural fertility. In Deuteronomy it is listed as one of the "seven species" of the land of Israel (Deut 8:8), and the book of Numbers relates that the spies brought Moses some pomegranates as a specimen of the land's rich vegetation (Num 13:23). In contrast, the destruction of the land is reflected by the absence of the pomegranate (Hag 2:19; cf Joel 1:12). In addition to symbolizing the fertility of the land, it is a token of human fertility and love. In the Song of Solomon the pomegranate serves as an image of praise for both the beauty of the beloved (4:3, 13; 6:7) and the joy of spring (6:11; 7:12); it is also mentioned as the source of a delicious wine (Song 8:2).

So important and popular was the pomegranate that its shape inspired the embellishment of the robe of the high priest (Ex 28:33-34; 39:24-26). It also provided a model for decorating the capitals of the Temple pillars named Jachin and Boaz (I Kgs 7:18, 20; II Chr 3:16; 4:13).

POPLAR A white tree mentioned twice in the OT. Jacob spliced its branches along with the almond and plane trees in his scheme against Laban to increase his flocks (Gen 30:37). It is mentioned as growing with the oaks and terebinths in the hills (Hos 4:13).

RAISIN See VINE, VINEYARD below

REED The stalk of several types of tall aquatic grasses. Moses was placed in an ark "in the reeds by the river's bank" (Ex 2:3); and Job asks, "can the reeds flourish without water ?" (Job 8:11). Psalm 68:30 makes an obscure reference to the "beasts of the reeds". The Assyrian king, Sennacherib, compares Egypt to a "broken reed" (II Kgs 18:21; Is 36:6), and the prophet Ahijah, in the time of Jeroboam I predicts that "the Lord will strike Israel, as a reed is shaken in water" (I Kgs 14:15). The Lord's servant mentioned in Isaiah 42:3 and Matthew 12:20, will not break "a bruised reed". A reed is used as a measuring rod in Revelation (11:1; 21:15-16). The English word "canon" ultimately stems from the Hebrew word for reed, kane, which indicates the means by which something is measured.

Before Jesus' crucifixion, a reed was placed in his right hand (Matt 27:29), he was struck on the head with one (Mark 15:19) and a wine-soaked sponge on a reed was offered to him on the cross (Matt 27:48).

ROSE The flower (a member of the narcissus family) is mentioned twice in the OT: "I am the rose of Sharon" (Song 2:1). "And the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose" (Is 35:1). However, the identity of the flower is not clear in either text.

RUE A strong-smelling shrub with gray-green leaves and lemon-yellow clusters of flowers; used as a condiment and charm. It is mentioned in Jesus' criticism of the Pharisees: "For you tithe mint and rue and all manner of herbs, and pass by justice and the love of God'' (Luke 11:42; cf Matt 23:23).

SAFFRON A plant and its product used in cooking and medicine. It is mentioned only once, in the Song of Solomon 4:14, where the beloved is described as a park containing fragrant flowers and spices.

STACTE One of the ingredients compounded to make incense for the tabernacle (Ex 31:34-36). Its source is uncertain but most scholars suggest the storax tree from whose bark a fragrant resin can be obtained. The tree, with its snow-drop white flowers, is found throughout Palestine.

SYCAMORE (SYCOMORE) A tree indigenous to Palestine where it grew along the coastal plain and in the Negeb. It was so common that King Solomon "made cedars as abundant as the sycamores which are in the lowland" (I Kgs 10:27). This tree belonged to the family of the fig tree and had nothing in common with the sycamore of North America. David appointed an overseer for these trees in the lowland (I Chr 27:28). Amos identifies himself as a "tender of sycamore fruit".

In the NT, the short-statured Zacchaeus climbs a sycamore tree in order to see Jesus (Luke 19:4).

TAMARISK A tree or shrub with scalelike leaves. Abraham planted a tamarisk in Beersheba (Gen 21:33). Saul sat under one in Gibeah (I Sam 22:6) and his bones were buried beneath a tamarisk in Jobesh-Gilead (I Sam 31:13).

TEREBINTH A large tree, common in Palestine, which grows to a height of 35 feet (10.5m). God appeared to Abraham after his circumcision "by the terebinth trees of Mamre" (Gen 18:1), and the angel of the Lord visited Gideon at the terebinth tree in Ophrah (Judg 6:11). Jacob hid his household idols under such a tree before returning to Bethel to live there; and his wife Rebekah's nurse, Deborah, was buried under a terebinth tree (Gen 35:4, 8). Terebinth trees also acted as boundary markers (Josh 19:33) and landmarks (I Sam 10:3). Abimelech was crowned beside one (Judg 9:6), and his attack on Shechem passed by the Diviner's terebinth tree (Judg 9:37). Absalom's revolt ended in his entanglement in one "and his head caught in the terebinth so he was left hanging between heaven and earth" (II Sam 18:9). Isaiah prophesied that Judah "shall be as a terebinth whose leaf fades" (Is 1:30) and that none but the "stump" shall remain (Is 6:13). Hosea charged the Children of Israel with burning incense under terebinths.

THISTLE, THORN Types of wild plant which have sharp projections on their stems, branches or leaves. Over 20 different Hebrew words are used to describe these plants, frequently mentioned together in the Bible.

Thistles and thorns are figuratively employed to describe the results of sin (e.g. Gen 3:18; Hos 10:8). Elsewhere they denote worthlessness (II Sam 23:6; II Kgs 14:9); while in Matthew 7:16 they symbolize the evil of false prophets (cf Luke 6:44).

VINE, VINEYARD One of the most characteristic plants of Palestine. When Moses sent the spies into Canaan it "was the season of the first ripe grapes" (Num 13:20), and the spies returned with a cluster of grapes (Num 13:23). Nazirites were forbidden to drink "any grape juice'' or eat "fresh grapes or raisins" (Num 6:3). Raisins or raisin cakes, made from dried grapes, could be kept for a long time and were therefore suitable food for journeys (II Sam 6:19) and military provisions (II Sam 16:1).

The vine is employed in the OT to symbolize peace and security, "Judah and Israel dwelt safely, each man under his vine and fig tree" (I Kgs 4:25; cf Mic 4:4; Zech 3:10). Israel is compared to a vine which has taken "deep root" (Ps 80:8-9), but has "brought forth wild grapes" (Is 5:2). The inhabitants of Jerusalem will be devoured by fire like the "wood of the vine" (Ezek 15:2-8) because of their unfaithfulness.

In the NT, the most important symbolic use of the vine is Jesus' description of himself as "the true vine" (John 15:1). The connection between him and his followers is emphasized by his extension of this metaphor "I am the vine, you are the branches� without me you can do nothing" (John 15:5).

A detailed description of the planting of a vineyard is found in Isaiah 5:1-2, and an example of an Iron Age terraced farm of this sort was excavated at Khirbet er-Ras to the southwest of Jerusalem. It was usually planted on a hill (Jer 31:5; Amos 9:13; Ps 80:10) and provided with a hedge for protection from boars (Ps 80:13), foxes (Song 2:15) and thieves (Jer 49:9). Each vineyard had a storehouse (Is 5:2). Vineyards could be rented out (Song 8:11; Matt 21:33-43) or cultivated by the owners or by hired laborers (Matt 20:1-16). In the Levitical laws dealing with the harvest, vineyards were not to be gleaned (Lev 19:10; cf Deut 24:21). A vineyard was the cause of a dispute between King Ahab and Naboth which ended in the latter's death (I kgs 21:1ff).

WHEAT One of the most important grains, along with barley; cultivated since prehistoric times. Wheat is listed among the seven blessings of the land of Canaan (Deut 8:8). There are many references in the Bible to the harvesting (I Sam 6:13; Ruth 2:23), threshing (Judg 6:11; I Chr 21:20), cleaning (II Sam 4:6) and winnowing (Matt 3:12) of wheat. Its harvest served as the beginning of the Feast of Weeks, one of the three annual pilgrim festivals (Ex 34:22; Num 28:26-31). Wheat served as an export item sent by Solomon to Hiram (I Kgs 5:10-11).

Is also appears in poetic images, for God's care for Israel (Ps 81:16; 147:14) and describes as well, one of the limbs of the beautiful body of a young girl (Song 7:2). In the Nt it is employed both in allegory (Matt 3:12; Luke 3:17) and parable (Matt 13:25-30; Luke 16:7).

WILLOW Two different Hebrew words are rendered as willow, a tree found along water courses. The "willows of the brooks" (Lev 23:40; Job 40:22) are among the plants to be used for the Feast of Tabernacles. It was upon the willows "by the rivers of Babylon" that the exiles hung their harps and wept (Ps 137:1-2).

WORMWOOD A bitter plant indigenous to Palestine, yielding a juice with medicinal properties. It is mostly employed in metaphors: an "immoral woman" is "bitter as wormwood" (prov 5:4). Jeremiah describes God's judgment as feeding the people wormwood and giving them water of gall to drink (Jer 9:15; 23:15). Amos condemns those who turn "justice to wormwood'' (Amos 5:7; cf 6:12); and the prophet's anguish over the destruction of Jerusalem was like the bitterness of wormwood and gall (Lam 3:15, 19). In the Book of Revelation the blazing star which falls from heaven is called wormwood (Rev 8:10-11).