politics of Burma
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The current politics of Burma (also known as Myanmar) take place in a framework of an authoritarian dictatorial regime which is controlled by the military (Tatmadaw) in the form of the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC). A parliamentary government was elected in 1990, but the military prevented it from convening.
Political conditions
Historically, Burma, known to supporters of the junta as Myanmar, was a monarchy ruled by various dynasties prior to the 19th century. The British colonized Burma in the late 19th century, and it was under the jurisdiction of the British Raj until 1937.
Independence era
On January 4 1948, Burma achieved independence from Britain, and became a democracy based on the parliamentary system.
In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Burma, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members. On 4 January 1948, the nation became an independent republic, named the Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President and U Nu as its first Prime Minister. Unlike most other former British colonies, it did not become a member of the Commonwealth. A bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of a Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities.[1] The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British.[2]
AFPFL/Union Government
In 1961, U Thant, then Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former Secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations; he was the first non-Westerner to head any international organization and would serve as UN Secretary-General for ten years.[3] Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was a young Aung San Suu Kyi.
Military socialist era
In 1962, General Ne Win led a coup d'état and established a nominally socialist military government that sought to follow the "Burmese Way to Socialism." The military expropriated private businesses and followed an economic policy of autarchy, or economic isolation.
SLORC era
Amidst widespread demonstrations for economic reform and democracy against the Ne Win government in 1988, the military led by Saw Maung undertook a coup in September 1988 and formed a new military-led government under martial law that it named the State Law & Order Restoration Council, or SLORC.
The 8888 Uprising constituted the most widespread national demonstrations in Burma. The demonstrations started on 8 August 1988 in Rangoon (now Yangon), Burma. The initial student protesters in Rangoon Capital were joined by thousands of Burmese citizens, Buddhist monks, and even Burmese civil servants and some rank-and-file members of the military. During the uprising and subsequent military coup, the Burmese army killed thousands of the demonstrators.
After the suppression of the 8888 Uprising, SLORC abandoned the policies of the "Burmese Way to Socialism" adopted by Ne Win. SLORC instead opened up the country to foreign investment, particularly in the sectors of resource extraction, tourism, and apparel manufacturing. The National League for Democracy is a Burmese political party founded on 27 September 1988. It is led by Aung San Suu Kyi, who acts as General Secretary. In the 1990 parliamentary elections, the party won 392 out of 492 seats. However, the ruling military junta, then known as SLORC, prevented the NLD from forming a government. Soon after 1990 election, some elected representatives escaped from arrests made by the military regime, formed the National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma (NCGUB) to carry out the struggle for democracy and freedom. This democratic government-in-exile is now headquartered in Rockville, Maryland.
The General Secretary of the National League for Democracy, Aung San Suu Kyi won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991 for leading a principled and non-violent campaign for the restoration of Burmese democracy and human rights. She remains under house arrest. The military has held her in detention for 10 of the last 16 years. She is the only Nobel Peace Laureate in detention in the world today.
SPDC era
The current Head of State is Senior General Than Shwe who holds the title of "Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council." His appointed prime minister was Khin Nyunt until 19 October 2004, when he was forcibly deposed in favor of Gen. Soe Win. Almost all cabinet offices are held by military officers.
US and European government sanctions against the military government, combined with consumer boycotts and shareholder pressure organized by Free Burma activists, have succeeded in forcing most western corporations to withdraw from Burma. However, some western oil companies remain due to loopholes in the sanctions. For example, the French oil company Total S.A. and the American oil company Chevron continue to operate the Yadana natural gas pipeline from Burma to Thailand. Total (formerly TotalFinaElf) is the subject of a lawsuit in French and Belgian courts for alleged complicity in human rights abuses along the gas pipeline. Before it was acquired by Chevron, Unocal settled a similar lawsuit for a reported multi-million dollar amount. [4] Asian businesses, such as Daewoo, continue to invest in Burma, particularly in natural resource extraction.
The United States and European clothing and shoe industry became the target of Free Burma activists for buying from factories in Myanmar that were wholly or partly owned by the government or the military. Many stopped sourcing from Burma after protests, starting with Levi Strauss in 1992. From 1992 to 2003, Free Burma activists successfully forced dozens of clothing and shoe companies to stop sourcing from Burma. These companies included Eddie Bauer, Liz Claiborne, Macy's, J. Crew, JoS. A. Banks, Children's Place, Burlington Coat Factory, Wal-Mart, and Target. The U.S. government banned all imports from Burma as part of the "Burmese Freedom and Democracy Act" of 2003. Sanctions have been criticized for their adverse effects on the civilian population. However, Burmese democracy movement leader Aung San Suu Kyi has repeatedly credited sanctions for putting pressure on the ruling military regime. [5][6]
Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International have documented egregious human rights abuses by the military government.[7] There is no independent judiciary in Burma and the military government suppresses political activity. The government restricts Internet access, including blocking of Google, Gmail, Yahoo, and Hotmail.[8] The government uses software-based filtering from US company Fortinet to limit the materials citizens can access on-line, including free email services, free web hosting and most political opposition and pro-democracy pages.[9]
In 2001, the government permitted NLD office branches to re-open throughout Burma. However, they were shut down or heavily restricted beginning 2004, as part of a government campaign to prohibit such activities. In 2006, many members resigned from NLD, citing harassment and pressure from the Tatmadaw (Armed Forces) and the Union Solidarity and Development Association.
The military government placed Aung San Suu Kyi under house arrest again on May 31, 2003, following an attack on her convoy in northern Burma by a mob reported to be in league with the military. The regime extended her house arrest for yet another year in late November of 2005. Despite a direct appeal by Kofi Annan to Than Shwe and pressure from ASEAN, the Burmese government extended Aung San Suu Kyi's house arrest another year on 27 May 2006.[10]
The junta faces increasing international isolation. Burma's situation was referred to the UN (United Nations) Security Council for the first time in December 2005 for an informal consultation. ASEAN has also stated its frustration with Burma's government. However, China and Russia continue to support the junta. Both countries vetoed a UN Security Council resolution on Burma in January 2007.
According to Human Rights Defenders and Promoters (HRDP), on April 18, 2007, several of its members (Myint Aye, Maung Maung Lay, Tin Maung Oo and Yin Kyi) were met by approximately a hundred people led by a local USDA Secretary U Nyunt Oo and beaten up. Due to the attack, Myint Hlaing and Maung Maung Lay were badly injured and are now hospitalized. The HRDP believes that this attack was condoned by the authorities and vows to take legal action. Human Rights Defenders and Promoters was formed in 2002 to raise awareness among the people of Myanmar about their human rights.
Executive branch
| Office | Name | Party | Since |
|---|---|---|---|
| Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council | Than Shwe | April 23 1992 | |
| Prime Minister | Thein Sein | May 18 2007 |
The Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council is both the chief of state and de facto head of government. The council oversees the cabinet, presided by the prime minister.
Members of Government of Burma
Chmn., State Peace & Development Council THAN SHWE, Sr. Gen.
Vice Chmn., State Peace & Development Council MAUNG AYE, Vice Sr. Gen.
Prime Min. (Acting) THEIN SEIN, Gen.
Min. of Agriculture & Irrigation HTAY OO, Maj. Gen.
Min. of Commerce TIN NAING THEIN, Brig. Gen.
Min. of Communications, Post, & Telegraph THEIN ZAW, Brig. Gen.
Min. of Construction SAW TUN, Maj. Gen.
Min. of Cooperatives TIN HTUT, Maj. Gen.
Min. of Culture KHIN AUNG MYINT, Maj. Gen.
Min. of Defense THAN SHWE, Sr. Gen.
Min. of Education CHAN NYEIN, Dr.
Min. of Electric Power 1 ZAW MIN, Col.
Min. of Electric Power 2 KHIN MYAUNG MYINT, Maj. Gen.
Min. of Energy LUN THI, Brig. Gen.
Min. of Finance & Revenue HLA TUN, Maj. Gen.
Min. of Foreign Affairs NYAN WIN
Min. of Forestry THEIN AUNG, Brig. Gen.
Min. of Health KYAW MYINT, Dr.
Min. of Home Affairs MAUNG OO, Maj. Gen.
Min. of Hotels & Tourism SOE NAING, Maj. Gen.
Min. of Immigration & Population MAUNG MAUNG SWE, Maj. Gen.
Min. of Industry 1 AUNG THAUNG
Min. of Industry 2 SAW LWIN, Maj. Gen.
Min. of Information KYAW HSAN, Brig. Gen.
Min. of Labor THAUNG
Min. of Livestock Breeding & Fisheries MAUNG MAUNG THEIN, Brig. Gen.
Min. of Mines OHN MYINT, Brig. Gen.
Min. of National Planning & Economic Development SOE THA
Min. of Progress of Border Areas, National Races, & Development Affairs THEIN NYUNT, Col.
Min. of Rail Transport AUNG MIN, Maj. Gen.
Min. of Religious Affairs THURA MYINT MAUNG, Brig. Gen.
Min. of Science & Industry THAUNG
Min. of Social Welfare, Relief, & Resettlement MAUNG MAUNG SWE, Maj. Gen.
Min. of Sports THURA AYE MYINT, Brig. Gen.
Min. for Transport THEIN SWE, Maj. Gen.
Legislative branch
A unicameral People's Assembly (Pyithu Hluttaw), in which 492 seats are elected by popular vote in four-year terms, has never convened. The last elections were held May 271990.
| Party | Votes | Seats | % | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pop. | Seats | |||
| National League for Democracy (NLD) | 7,943,622 | 392 | 58.7 | 79.7 |
| Shan Nationalities League for Democracy (SNLD) | 222,821 | 23 | 1.7 | 4.7 |
| Minor parties and independents | 1,606,858 | 12 | 12.1 | 2.4 |
| Arakan League for Democracy (ALD) | 160,783 | 11 | 1.2 | 2.2 |
| National Unity Party (NUP) | 2,805,559 | 10 | 2.1 | 2.0 |
| Mon National Democratic Front (MNDF) | 138,572 | 5 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
| National Democratic Party for Human Rights | 128,129 | 4 | 1.0 | 0.8 |
| Chin National League for Democracy | 51,187 | 3 | 0.4 | 0.1 |
| Kachin State National Congress for Democracy | 13,994 | 3 | 0.1 | 0.1 |
| Party for National Democracy | 72,672 | 3 | 0.5 | 0.1 |
| Union Pa-O National Organisation | 35,389 | 3 | 0.3 | 0.1 |
| Democratic Organisation for Kayah National Unity | 16,553 | 2 | 0.1 | - |
| Kayah State Nationalities League for Democracy | 11,664 | 2 | 0.1 | - |
| Naga Hills Regional Progressive Party | 10,612 | 2 | 0.1 | - |
| Ta-ang (Palaung) National League for Democracy | 16,553 | 2 | 0.1 | - |
| Zomi National Congress (ZNC) | 18,638 | 2 | 0.1 | - |
| Total valid votes (87.7% of total cast) | 13,253,606 | 492 | 100.0 | |
| Invalid votes | 1,858,918 | |||
| Valid votes (72.6% turnout) | 15,112,524 | |||
| Eligible voters | 20,818,313 | |||
| Source: psephos.adam-carr.net | ||||
Judicial system
Burma's judicial system is limited. British-era laws and legal systems remain much intact, but there is no guarantee of a fair public trial. The judiciary is not independent of the executive branch. Burma does not accept compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction.
Chief Justice of Supreme Court: AUNG TOE
Attorney General: AYE MAUNG
Wareru dhammathat
Wareru dhammathat was the earliest law-book in Burma. It consists of laws ascribed to the ancient Indian sage, Manu, and brought to Burma by Hindu colonists. The collection was made at Wareru’s command, by monks from the writings of earlier Mon scholars preserved in the monasteries of his kingdom. (Wareru seized Martaban in 1281 and obtained the recognition of China as the ruler of Lower Burma and founded a kingdom which lasted until 1539. Martaban was its first capital, and remained so until 1369. It stretched southwards as far as Tenasserim.) [11]
Dammazedi pyatton
Mon King Dammazedi (1472-92) was the greatest of the Mon rulers of Wareru’s line. He was famous for his wisdom and the collection of his rulings were recorded in the Kalyani stone inscriptions and known as the Dammazedi pyatton. [12]
Administrative divisions
Burma is divided into seven divisions (taing) and seven states (pyi-nè), classified by ethnic composition. The seven divisions are Ayeyarwady Division, Bago Division, Magway Division, Mandalay Division, Sagaing Division, Tanintharyi Division and Yangon Division; the seven states are Chin State, Kachin State, Kayin State, Kayah State, Mon State, Rakhine State and Shan State.
International organization participation
AsDB, ASEAN, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, GJC
Burmese Democracy and Human Rights online media
There are a number of web sites for more information, you can start off at the following:
- Globalissues,HumanRights Abuses in Burma. [13]
- Burma Digest[2]
- Irrawaddy, English.[3]
- Irrawaddy, Burmese.[4]
- Mizzima News [5]
- DVB Democratic Voice of Burma.[6]
- Khit Pyaing, The New Era Journal.(Burmese)[7]
- Khit Pyaing, The New Era Journal.(English)[8]
- Moe Maka, Burmese.[9]
- Burmanet news.[10]
References
- ^ The Constitution of the Union of Burma. DVB (1947). Retrieved on 2006-07-07.
- ^ Smith, Martin (1991). Burma -Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity. London and New Jersey: Zed Books, 42-43.
- ^ Aung Zaw. Can Another Asian Fill U Thant's Shoes?. The Irrawaddy Sep 2006. Retrieved on 2006-09-12.
- ^ "Dilemma of dealing with Burma", BBC News, 2004-10-20. Retrieved on 2004-11-02.
- ^ "How Best to Rid the World of Monsters", Washington Post, 2003-06-23. Retrieved on 2006-05-24.
- ^ "Reuters Belgian group seeks Total boycott over Myanmar", Ibiblio, Reuters, 1999-05-10. Retrieved on 2006-06-24.
- ^ "Active Citizens under Political Wraps: Experiences from Burma and Vietnam", Heinrich Böll Foundation.
- ^ Times of India article
- ^ "Internet Filtering in Burma in 2005: A Country Study", OpenNet Initiative.
- ^ The Irrawaddy. "Suu Kyi’s Detention Extended, Supporters likely to Protest", The Irrawaddy, 2006-05-27. Retrieved on 2006-05-27.
- ^ BURMA, D. G . E. HALL, M.A., D.LIT., F.R.HIST.S., Professor Emeritus of the University of London and formerly Professor of History in the University of Rangoon, Burma.Third edition 1960. Page 34
- ^ BURMA, D. G . E. HALL, M.A., D.LIT., F.R.HIST.S. Professor Emeritus of the University of London and formerly Professor of History in the University of Rangoon, Burma. Third edition 1960. Page 35-36
- ^ globalissues.org/HumanRights/Abuses/Myanmar.[1]
Sources
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