Pomerania during the High Middle Ages

Pomerania during the High Middle Ages covers the History of Pomerania in the 12th and 13th centuries.

The early 12th century Obodrite, Polish, Saxon, and Danish conquests resulted in vassalage and Christianization of the formerly pagan and independent Pomeranian tribes.^[1][2][3][4] Local dynasties ruled the Principality of Rügen (House of Wizlaw), the Duchy of Pomerania (House of Pomerania, "Griffins"), the Lands of Schlawe and Stolp (Ratiboride branch of the Griffins), and the duchies in Pomerelia (Samborides).^[1]

The dukes of Pomerania expanded their realm into Circipania and Uckermark to the Southwest, and competed with the Margraviate of Brandenburg for territory and formal overlordship over their duchies. Pomerania-Demmin lost most of her territory and was integrated into Pomerania-Stettin in the mid-13th century. When the Ratiborides died out in 1223, competition arose for the Lands of Schlawe and Stolp,^[5] which changed hands numerous times.

Throughout the High Middle Ages, a large influx of German settlers and the introduction of German law, custom, and Low German language turned the area into a German one (Ostsiedlung). The Wends, who during the Early Middle Ages had belonged to the Slavic Rani, Lutician and Pomeranian tribes, were assimilated by the German Pomeranians. The Kashubians however, descendants of Slavic Pomeranians, dominated many rural areas in Pomerelia. Most of the present-day towns were founded during the Ostsiedlung.^[6]

The conversion of Pomerania to Christianity was achieved primarily by the missionary efforts of Absalon and Otto von Bamberg, by the foundation of numerous monasteries, and by the assimilatory power of the Christian settlers. A Pomeranian diocese was set up in Wolin, the see was later moved to Cammin.

Obodrite realm (1093-1128)

After the decline of the Lutician federation and the subsequent expansion of the Obodrite realm into former Lutician areas, and following the victory of Obodrite prince Henry in the Battle of Schmilau in 1093, Helmold of Bosau reported that among others the Luticians,^[7] Pomeranians^[7] and Rani^[7] had to pay tribute to Obodrite prince Henry.^[7][8] The Rani however launched a naval expedition in 1100, in the course of which they sieged Liubice, a predecessor of modern Lübeck and then the Obodrite capitol.^[9] This attack was however repulsed, and the Rani became tributary again.^[7][9] After they had killed Henry's son Woldemar and stopped paying tribute, Henry retaliated with two expeditions launched in the winters of 1123/24 and 1124/25, supported by Wendish and Saxon troops.^[7] The Rani Svantevit priests were forced to negotiate,^[9] and the island was spared only in return for an immense sum which had to be collected from the continental Slavs further east. At this time, Wartislaw I, Duke of Pomerania, was already expanding his realm into Liutician territories south of the Rani. Regrouping after Henry's death (1127), the Rani again assaulted and this time destroyed Liubice in 1128,^[9][10] ending Obodrite influence in the Pomeranian territories.

Polish conquests (1102 - 1122)

In several expeditions mounted between 1102 and 1121, most of Pomerania had been subdued by the Polish duke Bolesław III Wrymouth.^[11]

From 1102 to 1109, Boleslaw campaigned in the Netze (Notec) and Persante (Parseta) area.^[12] The Pomeranian residence in Belgard (Bialogard) was taken already in 1102.^[11] From 1112 to 1116, Boleslaw subdued all of Pomerelia.^[12] From 1119 to 1122, the area towards the Oder were subdued.^[12] Stettin (Szczecin) was taken in the winter of 1121/1122.^[12]

The conquest resulted in a high death toll and devastation of vast areas of Pomerania, and the Pomeranian dukes became vassals of Boleslaw III of Poland.^[2][3][4] Deportations of Pomeranians to Poland took place.^{[13][clarification needed]} The terms of surrender after the Polish conquest were that Wartislaw had to accept Polish souvereignity, convert his people to Christianity, and pay an annual tribute to the Polish duke.^[3]

List of Polish campaigns

Emergence of Pomeranian dynasties - Samborides and Griffins

Pomerelia, once under Polish control, was ruled by the Samborides dynasty until 1294.^[1] The duchy was split temporarily into districts of Gdańsk (Danzig), Białogard (Belgard an der Leba), Świecie (Schwetz), and Lubieszewo-Tczew (Dirschau).

In Pomerania proper, direct Polish rule ended with Boleslaw III's death.^[15][16][17] The Stolp (Słupsk) and Schlawe (Sławno) areas (Lands of Schlawe and Stolp were ruled by Ratibor I and his descendants (Ratiboriden branch of the Griffin House of Pomerania) until the Danish occupation and extinction of the Ratiboride branch in 1227.

The areas stretching from Kolberg (Kołobrzeg) to Stettin (Szczecin) were ruled by Ratibor's brother Wartislaw I and his descendants (House of Pomerania, also called Griffins, of which he was the first ascertained ancestor) until the 1630s.^[1]

Failed mission of Bernard (1122)

The first attempt to convert the Pomeranians to Christianity following the subjugation of Pomerania by Boleslaw III of Poland was made in 1122. The Spanish monk Bernard (also Bernhard) travelled to Jumne (Wolin), accompagnied only by his chaplain and an interpreter. The Pomeranians however were not impressed by his missionary efforts and finally threw him out of town.^[3][12][18]

Bernard was later made bishop of Lebus.^[3]

Otto of Bamberg's first mission (1124)

Statue of Otto of Bamberg, in the monastery of Saint Michael in Bamberg (Bavaria, Germany)

After Bernard's misfortune, Boleslaw III asked Otto of Bamberg^[19] to convert Pomerania to Christianity, which he accomplished in his first visit in 1124/25.^[20] Otto's strategy severely differed from the one Bernard used: While Bernard travelled alone and as a poor and unknown priest, Otto, a wealthy and famous man, was accompagnied by 20 clergy of his own diocese, numerous servants, 60 warriors supplied to him by Boleslaw, and carried with him numerous supplies and gifts. After arriving in Pyritz, the Pomeranians were assured that Otto's aim was not the gain of wealth at the expense of the Pomeranian people, as he was wealthy already, but only to convert them to Christianity, which would protect the Pomeranians from further punishment by God, as which the devastating Polish conquest was depicted. This approach turned out to be successful, and was backed by parts of the Pomeranian nobility that in part was Christian raised already, like duke Wartislaw I, who encouraged and promoted Otto's mission. Many Pomeranians were baptized already in Pyritz and also in the other burghs visited.^{[3][21][22][23][24]}

At this first mission, Otto founded at least eleven churches, two of those each in Stettin and Wollin.^[25]

Westward expansion of Wartislaw I

In the meantime, Wartislaw managed to conquer vast territories west of the Oder river, an area inhabited by Liutizian tribes weakened by past warfare, and included these territories into his Duchy of Pomerania. Already in 1120, he had expanded west into the areas near the Oder Lagoon and Peene river. Most notably Demmin, the Principality of Gützkow and Wolgast were conquered in the following years.^[16]

The major stage of the westward expansion into Liutizian territory was between Otto of Bamberg's two missions, 1124 and 1128. In 1128, Demmin, the County of Gützkow and Wolgast were already incorporated into Wartislaw I's realm, yet warfare was still going on.^[26] Captured Liutizians and othe war loot, including livestock, money, and clothes were apportioned among the victorious.^[27]

After the conquests, Wartislaw's realm stretched from the Bay of Greifswald in the North and Circipania with Güstrow in the West to the Havel and possibly also the Spree rivers in the South and the Kolberg area in the east.^[28]

These gains were not subject to Polish overlordship,^[15][29] but were placed under overlordship of Nordmark margrave Albrecht the Bear by Lothair III, Holy Roman Emperor.^[15] Thus, the western territories contributed to making Wartislaw significantly independent from the Polish dukes.^[30] Wartislaw was not the only one campaigning in these areas. The Polish duke Boleslaw III during his Pomeranian campaign launched an expedition into the Müritz area in 1120/21,^[31] before he turned back to subdue Wartislaw. The later Holy Roman Emperor Lothair III (then Saxon duke Lothair I of Supplinburg) in 1114 initiated massive campaigns against the local Lutizian tribes resulting in their final defeat in 1228.^[31] Also, the territories were invaded by Danish forces multiple times, who, coming from the Baltic Sea, used the rivers Peene and Uecker to advance to a line Demmin–Pasewalk.^[29] At different times, Pomeranians, Saxons and Danes were either allies or opponents.^[29] The Pomeranian dukes consolidated their power in the course of the 12th century, yet the preceding warfare had left these territories completely devastated.^[32]

Society under Wartislaw I

In Wartislaw I's duchy, there were two social classes, the free and the slaves.^[33] The bulk of the Pomeranians belonged to the free class.^[33] The relatively low number of slaves were captured Liutzian, Obodrite or Danish warriors.^[27][33] Because there were more slaves than needed, the Pomeranians engaged in slave trade^[27] and sold their slaves primarily to Poland.^[27][33]

The social standing of the free depended on their property and notability. Wealth was achieved primarily by the possession of land, by trade, and by piracy. The average free man was occupied with farming, breeding, fishing, hunting, foraging, and bee breeding. Those living in town-like settlements were typically merchants or craftsmen. The largest settlements were Wollin and Stettin with a few thousand inhabitants each. Goods were exchanged on marketplaces twice a week. Overall, the Pomeranian population was relatively wealthy.^[34]

Wartislaw's power and standing differed depending on the area. In the east of his duchy (Cammin, Belgard, and Kolberg area) his power was strongest, tribal assemblies are not documented. In the center (Wollin, Stettin, and Pyritz area) Wartislaw had to yield the decisions of the local population and nobility. In the towns, Wartislaw maintained small courts. Every decision of Wartislaw had to pass an assembly of the elders and an assembly of the free. In the newly gained Liutizian territories of the West, Wartislaw managed to establish a rule that resembled his rule in the eastern parts, but also negotiated with the nobility.^[35]

Otto of Bamberg's second mission (1128)

Conversion of Pomerania, depicted in Stolpe's Wartislaw Memorial Church

Otto of Bamberg returned in 1128^[22], this time invited by duke Wartislaw I himself, aided by the emperor Holy Roman Emperor Lothar III, to convert the Slavs of Western Pomerania just incorporated into the Pomeranian duchy, and to strengthen the Christian faith of the inhabitants of Stettin and Wollin, who fell back into heathen practices and idolatry.^[23][36] Otto this time visited primarily Western Pomeranian burghs, had the temples of Gützkow and Wolgast torn down and on their sites erected the predecessors of today's St Nikolai and St Petri churches, respectively, before turning to Cammin, Wollin and Stettin.^[36] The nobility assembled to a congress in Usedom,^[36] where they accepted Christianity on June 10, 1128.^[20][23][37] Otto then was titled apostolus gentis Pomeranorum, made a saint by pope Clement III in 1189, and was worshipped in Pomerania even after the Protestant Reformation.^[38]

Holy Roman Emperor Lothar III claimed the areas west of the Oder for his empire. Thus the terms of Otto's second mission were not negotiated with Boleslaw III of Poland, but with Lothar and Wartislaw I. However Lothar terminated the mission in the fall of 1128, probably because he distrusted Otto's contacts with Boleslaw. Otto visited Gnesen (Gniezno) on his way back to Bamberg.^[36]

Adalbert of Pomerania, the later Pomeranian bishop, participated in Otto's mission as an interpreter and assistant.^[39][40]

Fate of the pagan priesthood

The priests of the numerous gods worshipped before the conversion were one of the most powerful class in the early medieval society. Their reaction to the Christianization of Pomerania was ambiguous: In 1122, they saved missionary Bernhard's life by declaring him insane, otherwise he would have been killed in Wollin. On the other hand, Otto of Bamberg's mission was a far larger threat to the established pagan tradition, and eventually it succeeded in Christianization of the region. There are reports of unsuccessful assassination attempts made against Otto of Bamberg by the pagan priesthood. Following Otto's success, some of the pagan priests were crucified, while it is unknown what happened to the others. It has been speculated that they adapted to the new reality.^[40]

Pomeranian expeditions to Scandinavia

In 1134, Pomeranian troops invaded Denmark and even looted Roskilde, then the Danish capital.^[41] In 1135, Norwegian Konghelle was attacked and sacked.^[41]

Pomeranian diocese (1140)

St. Nicholas, Wollin (Wolin)

Cathedral, Kammin (Cammin, Kamien Pomorski)

On Otto of Bamberg's behalf, a diocese was founded with the see in Wollin (Julin, Jumne, Vineta),^[20] a major Slavic and Viking town in the Oder estituary. On October 14, 1140, Adalbert of Pomerania was made the first Bishop by Pope Innocent II.^[20] Otto however had died the year before.^[20] There was a rivalry between Otto's Diocese of Bamberg, the Diocese of Magdeburg and the Diocese of Gniezno for the incorporation of Pomerania. Pope Innocence II solved the dispute by repelling their claims and placed the new diocese directly under his Holy See. The see of the diocese was the church of St Adalbert in Wollin.^[39] The diocese had no clear-cut borders in the beginning, but roughly reached from the Tribsees burgh in the West to the Leba River in the East. In the South, it comprised the northern parts of Uckermark and Neumark. As such, it was shaped after the territory held by Ratibor I, Duke of Pomerania.^[39]

After ongoing Danish raids, Wollin was destroyed, and the see of the diocese was shifted across the Dievenow to Cammin's (also Kammin, now Kamień Pomorski) St John's church in 1176. This was confirmed by the pope in 1186. In the early 1200s, the Cammin diocese along with the Pomeranian dukes gained control over Circipania. Also, the bishops managed to gain direct control over a territory around Kolberg (now Kolobrzeg) and Köslin (now Koszalin).

The Pomerelian areas were integrated into the Kuyavian Diocese of Leslau (Włocławek).

Wendish Crusade (1147)

In 1147, the Wendish Crusade, a campaign of the Northern Crusades, was mounted by bishops and nobles of the Holy Roman Empire and Poland.^[42] The crusaders ravaged the land and laid siege to Demmin and Stettin despite them (officially) being already Christian. Wollin's bishop Adalbert took part in the negotiations that finally led to the lifting of the Stettin siege by the crusaders. Ratibor I, Duke of Pomerania, went to the Reichstag assembly in Havelberg the following year, where he swore to be a Christian.^[20][43][44]

Partition of 1155 - Pomerania-Demmin and Pomerania-Stettin

Wartislaw Memorial Church, Stolpe. Ratibor also founded Stolpe Abbey in Wartislaw's memorial.

Wartislaw I died between 1134 and 1148. His brother Ratibor I, duke in the Lands of Schlawe and Stolp, ruled in place of Wartislaw's sons, Bogislaw I and Casimir I until his death in about 1155. Then the duchy was split into Pomerania-Demmin, ruled by Casimir, including the upper Peene, Tollense, Dievenow and Rega areas, and Pomerania-Stettin, ruled by Bogislaw, including the lower Peene, Uecker, Oder, and Ihna areas. The Kolberg area was ruled in common as a codominion.^[45]

Saxon conquest (1164)

In the West, bishops and dukes of the Holy Roman Empire mounted expeditions to Pomerania. Most notable for the further fate of Pomerania are the 1147 Wendish Crusade and the 1164 Battle of Verchen, the Pomeranian dukes became vassals of Henry the Lion, of Saxony.^[42] Circipania came under control of the Pomeranian dukes at about this time. Despite this vassalage, Henry again sieged Demmin in 1177 when he allied with the Danes, but reconciled with the Pomeranian dukes thereafter.^[46]

Holy Roman Empire (1181)

After the 1147 Wendish crusade and the 1164 Battle of Verchen, the duchy (at least the western parts) had joined Henry the Lion's Duchy of Saxony. Following internal struggles, Henry fell against Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1181. Bogislaw I took his duchy as a fief directly from Barbarossa in the same year.^[41][47]

At that time, the duchy was also referred to as Slavia (yet this was a term applied to several Wendish areas such as Mecklenburg and the Principality of Rügen). The duchy remained in the Empire, although Denmark managed to take control of the southern Baltic including the Duchy of Pomerania from the 1180s until the 1227 Battle of Bornhöved.

Danish conquests (1168 - 1185)

From the North, Denmark attacked Pomerania. Several campaigns throughout the 12th century (in 1136, 1150, 1159 and throughout the 1160s) culminated in the defeat of the Principality of Rugia in 1168.^[48]

Conquest and conversion of the Rugian principality (1168)

Bishop Absalon topples the god Svantevit at Arkona, by Laurits Tuxen

Principality of Rugia, 13th century

The island of Rügen and the surrounding areas between the Recknitz, Peene and Ryck rivers were the settlement area of the West Slavic Rani (or Rujani) tribe. After Otto von Bamberg's mission, only the Rani principality of Rugia (Rügen) remained pagan. This was changed by a Danish expedition of 1168, launched by Valdemar I of Denmark and Absalon, archbishop of Roskilde.^[20] The Danish success in this expedition ended a series of conflicts between Denmark and Rügen. The Rügen princes, starting with Jaromar I, became vassals of Denmark,^[42][47] and the principality would be Denmark's bridgehead on the southern shore of the Baltic for the next centuries. The 1168 expedition was decided when after a Danish siege of the burgh of Arkona, a fire broke out leaving the defendants unable to further withstand the siege. Since Arkona was the major temple of the superior god Swantewit and therefore crucial for the powerful clerics, the Rani surrendered their other strongholds and temples without further fighting. Absalon had the Rani hand out and burn the wooden statues of their gods and integrated Rügen in the Diocese of Roskilde. The mainland of the Rügen principality was integrated into the Diocese of Schwerin.

Danish conquest of all Pomerania (1170 - 1185)

Scandinavia in 1219. Denmark in the 1170s, including the Principality of Rügen, is shown in orange; later gains including the Duchy of Pomerania are shown in light green.

When the Rugian princes became vassals of Valdemar I of Denmark in 1168, the Saxon-Danish alliance broke apart.^[49]

In the fall of 1170, the Danes raided the Oder estituary. In 1171, the Danes raided Circipania and took Cotimar's burgh in Behren-Lübchin. In 1173, the Danes turned to the Oder Lagoon again, taking the burgh of Stettin. Wartislaw II Swantiboriz, castellan of Stettin, became a Danish vassal. In 1177, the Danes again raided the Oder Lagoon area, also the burgh of Wolgast in 1178.^[50]

In 1184, Bogislaw I led the Pomeranian navy towards Rügen. On emperor Barbarossa's initiative, Bogislaw was to take the Principality of Rügen from the Danes, whose king Canut VI had refused him the oath of fealty. Though superior in numbers, the Pomeranian navy was utterly defeated by the Danish navy led by Absalon near Koos island in the Bay of Greifswald.^[41]

In 1184 and 1185, three campaigns of the Danes resulted in making Bogislaw I, Duke of Pomerania a Danish vassal. These campaigns were mounted by Valdemar's son and successor for the Danish throne, Canute VI of Denmark. In the Duchy of Pomerania the Danish period lasted until Valdemar II of Denmark lost the Battle of Børnehoved on 22 July 1227. Danish supremacy prevailed until 1325^[48] in the Rugian principality.^[41][50] During this time, the emperor formally renounced his claims on the southern Baltic Sea in favour of Denmark.^[41]

List of Danish campaigns

Foundation of monasteries

After the successful conversion of the nobility, monasteries were set up on vast areas granted by local dukes both to further implement Christian faith and to develop the land. The monasteries actively took part in the Ostsiedlung.^[23][60] Most of the clergy originated in Germany, to a lower degree in Poland, and since the mid-12th century also from Denmark.^[60]

Cistercian Stolpe Abbey (1153 by Benedictinians, since 1304 Cistercian[61]) near Gützkow Dargun Abbey (1172)[62] in Circipania near the ducal residence burgh, later town of Demmin Kolbatz (1173)[62] Oliva Abbey (1186) (now part of nearby Danzig (Gdansk)) Bergen (1193)[62] in the center of Rügen, near the Ranis' former main burgh Charenza and just besides the residence of the Princes of Rügen, Rugard. Hilda/Eldena (1198/99)[62] (now part of nearby Greifswald) Neuenkamp (1231)[61] Stettin[61] (1243) Marienflies[61] (1248) (See-)Buckow (1252/1260[61]) near Schlawe Ueckermünde (1260, later moved to Jasenitz[61]) Stettin Marienstift (1261)[61] Köslin[61] (1278) Krummin[61] (1289) on the Usedom isle Hiddensee (1296)[61] Verchen (1304), south of Demmin Stettin Ottenstift (1346)[61] Premonstratensian Grobe, Pudagla, or Usedom Abbey (1155), near Usedom (town) on the isle of Usedom Broda near the old Liutizian main temple site and capital, Rethra and the later town of Neubrandenburg Gramzow in the center of the Uckermark near the Ukrani burgh Oberuckersee and the town of Prenzlau Marienbusch (1224) near Treptow an der Rega[61] Stolp[61]

Dominican Order Ruins of Hilda Abbey (Eldena, Greifswald, founded in 1199) by Danish Cistercian monks Stralsund (1251)[61] Cammin (1295)[61] Greifswald Schwarzes Kloster ("Black Abbey") (1254)[61] Pasewalk (1272)[61] Stolp (1278)[61] Prenzlau[61] Soldin[61] Franciscan Stettin (1240)[61] Prenzlau (before 1250)[61] Stralsund (1254)[61] Greifswald Graues Kloster ("Grey Abbey", donated by the Counts of Gützkow, now Pomerania State Museum) (1262)[61] Pyritz[61] Greifenberg[61] Augustinian Pyritz[61] Gartz (Oder) (13th century)[61] Stargard (13th century)[61] Lippehne (1276)[61] Anklam (14th century)[61] Marienthron (14th century) near Neustettin[61] Jasenitz - (now Jasienica) near Pölitz (now in Police) Benedictinian Altentreptow (between 1191 and 1194)[62] Stolpe Abbey (1253-1304)[61] Kolberg[61]

Society in the late 12th and early 13th centuries

While in the early 12th century most of the Pomeranians were free, the free class in the late 12th century was reduced to nobility and knighthood. Those were free in their decisions concerning their property and actions, though formally they had to apply for the duke's support.^[63]

The class of the unfree still consisted of prisoners of war, but additionally one became unfree after conviction of a major criminal offense or if one was unable to pay one's depts. The unfree made up for an estimated 15% of the population and primarily had to work on the lands of the free.^[63]

Most of the population of this time was herzogshörig, meaning they were largely dependent on the duke. This dependency also could also result in becoming dependent on a person other than the duke, if the duke granted parts of his lands including the population thereon to a noble, a church, or a monastery. This class shared certain obligations and restrictions with the unfree, for example a head tax, and a restricted right to marry.^[63]

Their major obligations were participation in the duke's military campaigns, defense of the duchy, erection and maintenance of the ducal buildings (burghs, courts, bridges), to hand over horses, oxs, and carriages to the duke or his officials on demand, to host and to cater the duke or his officials on demand, to supply rations for the duke's journeys, a periodic tribute in form of a fixed amount of meat and wheat, and also a church tax ("biskopownica", since 1170 "Garbenzehnt").^[60]

The duchy was subdivided into castellanies. Former tribal centers like Stettin, Pyritz or Demmin were made seats of castellans ("Pristave" in the Principality of Rugia), who exerted the jurisdiction over the free and the herzogshörig people.^[60] The castellan and his court were housed in a small, but well fortified burgh. Adjacted to the burgh was a fortified suburbium housing craftsmen working for the duke and the court. Around the fortified burgh and suburbium, a couple of unfortified settlements housed markets, taverns, the mint, monasteries, churches, and other public and economic institutions.^[64]

The nobility in the 12th century lived in these town-like settlements, but turned to the countryside in the course of the 13th century.^[63]

German settlement (Ostsiedlung)

Ostsiedlung illustrated in the Sachsenspiegel. The man with the hat is the "Lokator", who recruited the settlers (right) for the landlord (left) and oversaw the construction of the town or village in turn for an elevated administrative position.

Starting in the 12th century, Pomerania was settled with Germans in a process termed Ostsiedlung, that affected all medieval East Central and Eastern Europe. Except for the Pomerelian Kashubians and the Slovincians, the Wends were assimilated. Many towns and villages date back to this period.

Ostsiedlung started on initiative of the monasteries^[65], dukes and noble land owners. They aimed at consolidation and strengthening of their position, and at securing their rule and territory. This was to be achieved by developing and intensifying the use of their lands, in turn, the settlers were granted privileges.^[66]

Without the inner strength resulting from Ostsiedlung, the Duchy of Pomerania would hardly have survived the warfare and struggles it was exposed to during the 13th and 14th centuries.^[65] There are no records of ethnic violence in the duchy during this period.^[67]

Scandinavian participation

Ostsiedlung in Pomerania and Rügen differed from other settlements by the high proportion of Scandinavians, especially Danes and people from the then Danish Scania region. The highest Danish influence was on the Ostsiedlung of the then Danish Rugian principality. In the possessions of the Rugian Eldena Abbey, a Danish establishment, settlers who opened a tavern would respectively be treated according to Danish, German and Wendish law.^[68]

Wampen, Ladebow, and other villages near Greifswald are of Danish origin.^[69] Yet, many Scandinavian settlers in the Pomeranian towns were of German origin, moving from older German merchants' settlements in Sweden to the newly founded towns at the Southern Baltic shore.^[70]

Rural settlement

Before the Ostsiedlung, Pomerania was rather sparsely settled. Around 1200, a relatively dense population could be found on the islands of Rügen, Usedom and Wollin, around the burghs of Stettin, Köslin, Pyritz (Pyritzer Weizacker) and Stargard, around the Persante river (Kolberg area), the lower Peene river, and between Schlawe and the Leba valley. Largely unsettled were the hilly regions and the woods in the South. The 12th century warfare, especially the Danish raids, depopulated many areas of Pomerania and caused severe population drops in others (e.g. Usedom). At the turn to the 13th century, only isolated German settlements existed, e.g. Hohenkrug and other German villages, and the merchant's settlement near the Stettin burgh. In contrast, the monasteries were almost exclusively run by Germans and Danes.^[71]

The first German and Danish settlers arrived since the 1170s and settled in the Peene area, the Uckermark, the Stettin area and southern Pomerania.^[72]

Massive German settlement started in the first half of the 13th century. Ostsiedlung was a common process at this time in all Central Europe and was largely run by the nobles and monasteries to increase their income. Also, the settlers were expected to finish and secure the conversion of the non-nobles to Christianity. In addition, the Danes withdrew from most of Pomerania in 1227, leaving the duchy vulnerable to their expansive neighbors, especially Mecklenburg, Brandenburg, and Henry I of Silesia.^[73]

Germans, at this early stage (before 1240), were often settled in frontier regions, such as the mainland part of the Principality of Rugia (after prince Jaromar I granted Eldena Abbey the right to call in settlers in 1209), Circipania, the lands of Loitz (administered semi-independently by Detlev of Gadebush), the Uckermark, the lands of Kolbatz Abbey and Bahn (which later was granted to the Knights Templar), and the area north of the Warthe and along the lower Oder river. However, in many of these frontiers, German settlement did not hinder the advance of Pomerania's neighbors.^[73]

Germans were placed under a different law than Slavs. While those were unfree (except for the nobles), did not own the soil they cultivated, and were to serve the nobility, the opposite was true for the Germans.^[74][75]

About 1240, the areas of Stavenhagen and Pyritz were subject to German settlement. About 1250, massive settlement took place also in Central Western Pomerania (County of Gützkow, lands of Meseritz, Ploth, Ziethen and Groswin), and the Stargard area (where settlement was encouraged already since 1229). In the 1260s, settlement started in the Cammin area, and in the virtually unpopulated lands of Naugard, Massow and Daber. The Ueckermünde and the Oder mouth areas were also settled at about 1260, but the Ueckermünde heath and the woodlands on both sides of the Oder Lagoon remained untouched. In the areas adjacted to the Peenestrom (the lands of Wusterhusen and Lassan) local Slavs participated in the German settlement which started in the 1260s. Settlement of the areas centered on the upper Rega river, previously unsettled, started in the 1250s, and reached a peak in the 1280s. The lower Rega area around Greifenberg and Treptow an der Rega was settled about the same period, but here a native Slavic population participated. In the Persante area, first German settlements occurred about 1260, but a more extensive settlement did not start before 1280. On the islands of Usedom and Wollin, only isolated settlements took place in the 13th century, e.g. in the Garz (Usedom) and Kaseborg area, where Germans settled already in the 1240s, and in proximity of the German town of town. The local Grobe Abbey did, in contrast to the other Pomeranian monasteries, not enhance German settlement. Therefore, Slavic culture on the isles persisted and vanished only in the late 14th century. The island of Rügen, in contrast to the meanwhile German mainland parts of the principality, also remained a Slavic character throughout the 13th century - German settlement would only start in the 14th century, with strong participation of local Slavs. In Schlawe-Stolp, German settlement sarted in the 1260s, and was promoted by the Belbuck Abbey. A large influx of settlers to the western parts of Schlawe-Stolp took place after 1270, first settlers were called to the Stolp area in the 1280s. Here, local Slavs participated in the Ostsiedlung, and settlement went on throughout the 14th century.^[76]

Initially, the Germans who settled the northern regions predominantly came from Lower Saxony, while the Germans who settled the southern areas (mittelpommerscher Keil) predominantly came from Altmark and Westphalia. This caused the emergence of different Pomeranian dialects. German settlers also came from areas earlier affected from Ostsiedlung, such as Mecklenburg, Brandenburg, and later also German settled regions of Pomerania herself. Though the exact proportion of German versus Slavic populations cannot be determined, it is undisputed that the Germans significantly outnumbered the Slavs. Before the end of the 13th century, the Western Pomeranian mainland and most of Farther Pomerania west of the Gollenberg had turned almost completely German, mentions of Slavs in documents became exceptional. The Slavic dialects disappeared, with the exception that fishermen from the isles and the Oder lagoon area continued to use Wendish for a relatively long period.^[77][78]

Besides the Slovincian area, the last records of Slavic language in the Duchy of Pomerania are from the 16th century: In the Oder area, a few Slavic fishing villages are recorded, and east of Kolberg and Köslin, a more numerous Slavic-speaking population must have existed, as can be concluded from a 1516 decree forbidding the use of the Slavic language on the Köslin market.^[79]

Villages before the Ostsiedlung were of the Haufendorf type, the houses were build in close proximity to each other without a special ruling. A variant of this type also found in Pomerania is the Sackgassendorf (or Sackdorf) type, where a dead end road leads to those houses. This type evolved as an extension of Haufendorf type villages. German settlement introduced new types of villages: In the Hagenhufendorf type, houses were build on both sides of a main road, each within their own hide (German: Hagen). Those villages were usually set up after the clearance of woodlands, most of them were given German names in absence of any Slavic site names. This type of village can be found all along the coast, most of them in the areas between Barth and Wolgast, Kolberg and Köslin, and north and west of Schlawe. Other villages were build in the Angerdorf type, where a main street fork encloses a large meadow ("Anger") in the village's center where the life stock was kept at night, sometimes the church or other buildings not used for living were build on the Anger also. This type is the most prominent type in the Peene, lower Oder, Pyritz, Lake Madü and Rega areas, many villages of this type are also found in the Kolberg and Schlawe area. In addition to these types, the Straßendorf type, characterized by a single and very long main street, was introduced in a later stage of Ostsiedlung, and therefore is found predominantly in areas that were affected last by the German settlement (easternmost parts, Cammin area). Villages of this type were either new foundations, or extensions of Slavic precursors. In other areas, Hagenhufendorf and Angerdorf types dominate, while the Haufendorf type used in Slavic times and its Sackdorf variant can still be found in between, predominantly on the islands.^[80][81][82]

The villages' area was divided in hides. The size of a hide differed between the village types: A Hagenhufe, used in the Hagenhufendorf villages, comprised 60 Morgen (Latin: iugera), about 40 hectar. A Landhufe, used in the Angerdorf villages, comprised 30 Morgen. One farm would usually have an area of one Hagenhufe or two Landhufen. Slavic farmland was measured in Haken (Latin: uncus), with one Haken equals 15 Morgen (half a Landhufe). Haken were used only in villages remaining under old Slavic law (predominantly on the islands), whereas Hufen were used for new villages placed under German law (in Pomerania sometimes referred to as Schwerin Law). Not all families of German villages owned a Hufe. Those dwelling on considerably smaller property ("gardens") were usually hired as workers by the farmers (German: Vollbauern). These people were termed "gardeners" (German: Gärtner) or Kossäten (literally "who sits in a hut"), and could either be local Slavs or the younger sons of German farmers who did not inherit their father's soil.^[81][83][84]

In southern Pomerania, villages were larger than in the North (50 to 60 Hufen compared to 10 to 20 Hufen), also the farm size varied with a typical farm in the South (Pyritz area) being 2 to 3 Hufen and at the coast one Hufe.^[85]

Foundation of towns

In Slavic times, there have been town-like settlements already in Demmin, Wolgast, Usedom, Wollin, Stettin, Kolberg, Pyritz and Stargard, although many of the coastal settlements declined during the 12th century warfare.^[86] Yet these settlements were not continued by the German towns, which were founded on previously unsettled soil. Although some towns had a Slavic settlement, sometimes attached to a burgh, as precursor, the name of which would be adopted for the German town, the new town was usually founded on empty space in the settlements neighborhood.^[87] The distance could be some kilometers as in the case of Kolberg. Exceptions are Wollin and probably Cammin, which were build on the spot of former, yet decayed settlements, and Stettin, where two German settlements were set up close to the Slavic burgh and settlement, all of which were included in the later town. In many cases, the name of the neighboring Slavic settlement would be used for the new town.^[88]

Medieval Greifswald, a typical Ostsiedlung town. Locators set up rectangular blocs in an area resembling an oval with a central market, and organized the settlement.

The towns were built on behalf of the Pomeranian dukes or ecclesial bodies like monasteries and orders.^[23] Most prominent on this issue was Barnim I of Pomerania-Stettin, who since was entitled "the towns' founder". The towns build on his behalf were granted Magdeburg Law and settled predominantly by people from the western Margraviate of Brandenburg, while the towns founded in the North (most on behalf of the Rugian princes and Wartislaw III of Pomerania-Demmin were granted Lübeck Law and were settled predominantly by people from Lower Saxony. The first towns were Stralsund (Principality of Rügen, 1234), Prenzlau (Uckermark, then Pomerania-Stettin, 1234), Bahn (Knights Templar, about 1234), and Stettin (1237/43), Gartz (Oder) (Pomerania-Stettin, 1240), and Loitz (by Detlev of Gadebusch, 1242). Other towns build in the 1240s were Demmin, Greifswald (by Eldena Abbey), Altentreptow.^[89]

In the 1250s followed Anklam, Altdamm, Pyritz, probably already Stargard and Grimmen, Greifenhagen, Barth (Principality of Rügen, before 1255), and Damgarten (Principality of Rügen, 1258). In the 1260s followed Wollin (1260), Ueckermünde, Wolgast, probably already Gützkow, Pölitz (1260), Greifenberg (1262), Gollnow, probably already Usedom, Penkun, Tribsees (Principality of Rügen, before 1267) and Naugard (by the bishop of Cammin, before 1268). In the 1270s followed Cammin (1274), Massow (by the bishop of Cammin, 1274), Pasewalk (recorded in 1274, founded probably in the 1250s), Plathe (1277), Lassan (between 1264 and 1278), Rügenwalde (by Wizlaw II of Rügen), Regenwalde (1279/80), Labes (about 1280), and Treptow an der Rega (between 1277 and 1281). Neuwarp, Richtenberg, Belgard, and Werben (by the bishop of Cammin) are first recorded in 1295, 1297, 1299, and 1300, respectively, all were most certainly founded earlier.^[89]

In the area directly administered by the bishops of Cammin, the towns of Kolberg (1255), Köslin (1266), Körlin (early 1300s), and Bublitz (1340) were set up. The early 14th century saw the foundation of Stolp (by Waldemar of Brandenburg, 1310), Neustettin (by Wartislaw IV, 1310), Rügenwalde (again 1312, the 1270s precursor had not done well), Rugendal (Principality of Rügen, before 1313, decayed), Schlawe (by the Swenzones, 1317), Garz (by the princes of Rügen, 1320s), Jacobshagen (by three brothers von Stegelitz, 1336), Freienwalde (by von Wedel, before 1338), Zanow (by the Swenzones, 1343), Lauenburg (by the Teutonic Knights, 1341), Bütow (by the Teutonic Knights, 1346), and Fiddichow (by Barnim III, 1347).^[89]

Many towns with a burgh in close proximity had the duke level this burgh when they grew in power. Stettin, where the burgh was inside the town, had the duke level his burgh already in 1249,^[87] other towns were to follow. The fortified new towns had succeeded the burghs as strongholds for the country's defense. In many cases, the former burgh settlement would become a Slavic suburb of the German town ("Wiek", "Wieck"). In Stettin, two "Wiek" suburbs were set up anew outside the walls, to which most Slavs from within the walls were resettled. Such Wiek settlements did initially not belong to the town, but to the duke, although they were likely to come into possession of the town in the course of the 14th century. Also in the 14th century, Slavic Wiek suburbs lost their Slavic character.^[90]

Territorial changes in the 13th century

War with Brandenburg

During the reign of Otto I, Margrave of Brandenburg and son of Albert I of Brandenburg (1100-1170), Brandenburg claimed sovereignty over Pomerania. Yet, in 1181, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I invested Duke Bogislaw I of the Griffin House of Pomerania with the Duchy of Slavia (Pomerania). This was not accepted by the Margraviate of Brandenburg and triggered several military conflicts.

Between 1185 and 1227, Pomerania along with most of the southern Baltic coast remained under sovereignty of Denmark. However, Brandenburg again tried to gain sovereignty over Pomerania, and in 1214 for a short time conquered Stettin.^[91] After Denmark lost the Battle of Bornhoeved in 1227, Denmark lost all her territories on the southern Baltic shore, including Pomerania.^[92]

At this time, the Duchy of Pomerania was co-ruled by duke Wartislaw III of Demmin and duke Barnim I of Stettin. After the Danes retreated, Brandenburg took her chance and invaded Pomerania-Demmin. In 1231, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II gave the duchy, which then was again a part of the empire, as a fief to the Ascanian margraves of Brandenburg.^[93][94]

Denmark also attempted to restore her rule and took Wolgast and Demmin in 1235, but was driven out the same year.^[95] Wartislaw had to accept Brandenburg's overlordship in the 1236 Treaty of Kremmen, furthermore he had to hand over most of his duchy to Brandenburg immediately, that was the Burg Stargard Land and adjacted areas (all soon to become a part of Mecklenburg, forming the bulk of the later Mecklenburg-Strelitz area). Circipania was already lost to Mecklenburg in the years before.

Duchy of Pomerania (indicated in yellow as Hzm. Slavien) after the territorial losses of 1236 and 1250. The secular reign of the Cammin bishops is indicated in purple (Bm. Cammin), the Margraviate of Brandenburg in blue.

In the 1250 Treaty of Landin between Pomeranian dukes and margraves of Brandenburg, Barnim I managed to reassert the rule of his Griffin house over Pomerania, but lost the Uckermark to Brandenburg.

Brandenburg since 1250 expanded eastward. In 1250/52, the margraves gained half of Lebus Land, including the terra Küstrin between Warthe and Mietzel (Myśla), and the terra Chinz north of the Mietzel river, both previously held by Barnim. In the course of the 1250s, the margraves further gained the castellanies Zantoch and Driesen except for the burghs itself, of both castellanies actually belonging to Greater Poland, Barnim had held the northern parts. In 1261, Barnim lost the Soldin area, and in the following years the terra Zehden to Brandenburg.^[96]

In 1264, Duke Wartislaw III of Demmin died, his cousin Barnim I (the Good) became the sole ruler of the duchy. In 1266, Barnim I married Mechthild, the daughter of Otto III, Margrave of Brandenburg.

In 1269, Barnim lost the terra Arnswalde to the margraves. Before his death, he bought the western part back in 1278.^[97]

Bogislaw IV lost the Bernstein area and Zinnenburg Land (terra Arnhausen and terra Schivelbein), in 1280. All former Pomeranian territories east of the Oder lost to Brandenburg in the 13th century became parts of the Brandenburgian Neumark ("new march").^[97]

War with Silesia

In 1234 and 1241, Silesian dukes Henry I and Henry II expanded their realm to the North, and even took control of areas north of the Warthe (Warta) river previously held by the Dukes of Pomerania.^[98] The Griffin dukes, Silesian Piasts, Dukes of Greater Poland, the bishops of Lebus and the bishops of Kammin all competed for the Warthe/Netze (Notec) area, centered around the burgh of Zantoch. Until 1250, Barnim I, Duke of Pomerania had recovered most of the previous Pomeranian territory^[98] and sought to secure them with the settlement of Germans, while Zantoch burgh was held by Przemysl II of Greater Poland.^[96]

Competition for Schlawe-Stolp

The last member of the Ratiborides branch of the Griffins, Ratibor II, died in 1223.^[5] This led to a competition between the Griffins and the Pomerelian Samborides for inheritance of Schlawe-Stolp.^[5] Because Ratibor died during the Danish period, Denmark administered the area until she had to withdraw after the lost Battle of Bornhöved in 1227.^[5] Barnim I, Duke of Pomerania, took control of the lands immediately after the Danish withdrawal, but had to yield Pomerelian duke Swantopolk's rights, whose relationship to the Ratiborides was closer.^[5] Swantopolk took over Schlawe-Stolp in 1235/36.^[5] The Griffins mounted an unsuccessful campaigns to gain the area in 1236/38,^[99] 1253,^[5][99] 1259,^[5][99] and 1266.^[99] After the death of Swantopolk II in 1266, Barnim I took over the area and kept it until 1269, when Rugian prince Wizlaw II took over.^[5] He withdrew in 1277 and left the area to Brandenburg.^[5] In 1283, Mestwin II of Pomerelia took over.^[5] Competition arose anew after his death in 1294.^[5] In 1296, Wizlaw's son Sambor launched another campaign.^[99]

When the area became incorporated into the Pomerelian duchy, the Swenzones dynasty gained control and gradually evolved to autonomously acting counts.

References

Bibliography

• Buchholz, Werner, ed (1999) (in German). Pommern. Siedler. ISBN 3886802728. 
• Buske, Norbert (1997) (in German). Pommern. Schwerin: Helms. ISBN 3-931185-07-9. 
• Addison, James Thayer (2003). Medieval Missionary: A Study of the Conversion of Northern Europe Ad 500 to 1300. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0766175677. 
• Heitz, Gerhard; Rischer, Henning (1995) (in German). Geschichte in Daten. Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Münster-Berlin: Koehler&Amelang. ISBN 3733801954. 
• Herrmann, Joachim (1985) (in German). Die Slawen in Deutschland. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag. ISBN 3515076719. 
• Inachim, Kyra (2008) (in German). Die Geschichte Pommerns. Rostock: Hinstorff. ISBN 978-3-356-01044-2. 
• Krause, Gerhard; Balz, Horst Robert; Müller, Gerhard (1997) (in German). Theologische Realenzyklopädie. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3110154358. 
• Maclear, George Frederick (1969). Apostles of Mediaeval Europe. Ayer Publishing. ISBN 0836928032. 
• Medley, D. J. (2004). The church and the empire. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 141915673X. 
• Palmer, William (2005). A Compendioius Ecclesiastical History from the Earliest Period to the Present Time. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 141798323X. 
• Piskorski, Jan Maria (1999) (in German). Pommern im Wandel der Zeiten. Zamek Ksiazat Pomorskich. ISBN 839061848. 
• Piskorski, Jan Maria (2007). "Slawen und Deutsche in Pommern im Mittelalter". in Herbers, Klaus; Jaspert, Nikolas (in German). Grenzräume und Grenzüberschreitungen im Vergleich: der Osten und der Westen des mittelalterlichen Lateineuropa. Akademie Verlag. ISBN 3050041552. 
• Wernicke, Horst (2000) (in German). Greifswald:Geschichte der Stadt. Helms. ISBN 3931185567. 
• Zientara, Benedykt; Smolka, Stanisław; Loew, Peter Oliver (2002) (in German). Heinrich der bärtige und seine Zeit: Politik und Gesellschaft im mittelalterlichen Schlesien. Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag. ISBN 3486566156. 

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