Pope Benedict XIV

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(17 Aug. 1740 — 3 May 1758)
Born at Bologna on 31 Mar. 1675, of noble but impoverished parentage, Prospero Lorenzo Lambertini studied at the Collegio Clementino, Rome, taking his doctorate in theology and law in 1694. Outstanding in ability and juridical training, he rose rapidly in the curia, becoming secretary of the Congregation of the Council in 1720. As Promotor of the Faith 1708 — 27 he had charge of canonizations, and wrote a classic treatise on the subject (De servorum Dei beatificatione et beatorum canonizatione: 1734 — 8) marked by a fresh, historical approach, reflecting his interest in archaeology and the researches of the Maurists; it remains an indispensable study. Benedict XIII, whose close adviser he was, promoted him titular bishop of Theodosia (1724), archbishop of Ancona (1727), and cardinal (in petto in Dec. 1726 and publicly in Apr. 1728). Translated to Bologna in 1731, he proved an efficient, greatly loved pastor, but found time to write a pioneer study of diocesan synods—which could not be published until 1748—as well as works on the feasts of Jesus Christ and of the BVM and on the mass. At the six-month conclave of 1740, the longest in modern times, he was not considered until the last moment, when he was elected as a compromise to everyone's surprise.

The choice was fortunate, for Benedict combined an unusually sympathetic personality with a high degree of political realism and chose highly capable collaborators. Conciliatory by nature and conviction, he concluded concordats containing substantial concessions with Sardinia (1741), Naples (1741), Spain (1753), and Austria for Milan (1757). The one with Spain, which surrendered practically all church appointments to the crown, was the most far-reaching. In the same spirit he restored relations with Portugal, disrupted since Benedict XIII's time, granting King John V (1706 — 50) the title 'Most Faithful' and conceding his most exorbitant demands for control of church affairs. He was no less accommodating, in the interests of their Catholic subjects, with Protestant sovereigns. Thus he cultivated good relations with Frederick II of Prussia (1740 — 86), which through the conquest of Silesia had significantly increased its Catholic population, and acknowledged his title as king, denied him by previous popes. As a result of this rapprochement he was able to prevent the setting up of a Prussian state church, with its own vicar-general and effectively independent of the holy see. His acceptance of these arrangements, often criticized as weakness, was proof of his awareness of what was possible in a world of absolutist states. His touch was less sure in dealing with the complex situation arising out of the death of Emperor Charles VI (20 Oct. 1740) and the War of the Austrian Succession (1740 — 8). First, he irritated Maria Theresa of Austria (1740 — 80) by only belatedly (20 Dec. 1740) recognizing her hereditary right to the imperial title, an act which aroused considerable opposition, and then deepened the estrangement by recognizing (Feb. 1742) Charles Albert of Bavaria as Emperor Charles VII (1742 — 5). As a result he had to witness the sequestration of all benefices in Austria, and the invasion of the papal states by warring troops. On Charles VII's death (Jan. 1745) he assumed a neutral stance and in Dec. 1745, in spite of pressure from France and Spain, recognized Francis I, consort of Maria Theresa, as emperor (1745 — 65). In the peace of Aachen (1748) Parma and Piacenza were disposed of without regard to the feudal rights of the holy see, Benedict's protest being merely noted as a dissenting view.

In spite of the burden of debt caused by the wars, Benedict did much to improve the finances of the papal states, reducing taxation and encouraging agriculture and freedom of trade. He drastically cut the papal military budget, but failed to carry out the thorough reform of the administration that was necessary. In the strictly church field, where his heart lay, his legislation was wide-ranging. More than once he impressed on bishops their duties of residence, of training their clergy, and of pastoral visitation, and he set up special commissions to select worthy bishops and to deal with their problems. In the decree Matrimonia quae (4 Nov. 1741), issued originally for Belgium and Holland but later extended to other countries, he exempted the marriages of non-Catholics and mixed marriages from the juridical form prescribed by the council of Trent. Concerned for the purity of the liturgy, he appointed a commission in 1741 to reform the breviary; in 1747, dissatisfied with its proposals, he took the work in hand himself, but was not able to complete it. Between 1748 and 1754 he reduced the number of holy days in Italy and several other countries. In a brief to the Portuguese bishops of South America (1741) he called for more humane treatment of the Indians. By the bull Ex quo singulari (11 July 1742) he finally suppressed the Chinese rites favoured by Jesuit missionaries, following it with the bull Omnium sollicitudinum (12 Sept. 1744) extending the ban, in milder terms, to Malabar rites in India. He renewed (Providas Romanorum Pontificum: 18 May 1751) Clement XII's denunciation of Freemasonry, and condemned various writings of the Enlightenment, such as Montesquieu's Esprit des lois (13 Mar. 1752) and the works of Voltaire. His characteristic moderation, however, was revealed in his publication of an improved edition of the Index (1758), preceded by a constitution (1753) prescribing fairer and more scholarly standards for the inclusion of books in it, as also in a letter to the French bishops (16 Oct. 1756) stressing the authority of the bull Unigenitus, but ruling that only brazen flouters of it should be refused the last rites. A month before his death, in view of attacks on the Jesuits, he instructed Cardinal Saldanha, patriarch of Portugal, to investigate the order in that country, with particular reference to charges that it was neglecting its rule and engaging in trade.

Approachable and witty, with a tongue which could be sarcastic and an openness which his confidants sometimes abused, Benedict kept up his scholarly interests till the end. A connoisseur himself of church history, he founded not only academies for literary discussion but chairs of higher mathematics, chemistry, and surgery. He extended the Vatican Library and opened, attached to the Library, a museum of Christian antiquities. His wide sympathies won him the respect of Protestants, and even of the French philosophes; Voltaire dedicated his tragedy Mahomet to him (1745) and Benedict replied with a kind letter, causing eyebrows to be raised in strict Catholic circles. A devout churchman but also a modern man, he was described by Horace Walpole as 'a priest without insolence or interest, a prince without favourites, a pope without nephews'.

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Benedict XIV, 1675-1758, pope (1740-58), an Italian (b. Bologna) named Prospero Lambertini; successor of Clement XII. Long before his pontificate he was renowned for his learning and wrote a classic treatise on the subject of canonization (1734-38). In 1728 he became a cardinal. He was much interested in the Eastern churches and began (with the bull Etsi pastoralis, 1742) the modern papal legislation that favors the Eastern rites and prohibits activity that is likely to Latinize them. He beautified Rome and restored monuments, and he was munificent to Bologna. He patronized learning and welcomed scholars and artists to his court. He denounced the cruelty to the Native Americans in the disbanding of the Paraguay reductions. He was succeeded by Clement XIII.

Benedict XIV (POPE) (1675–1758; reigned 1740–1758), Italian pope. Born in Bologna as Prospero Lambertini into a patrician family of modest means on 31 March 1675, he earned a doctorate in theology and a double doctorate in canon and civil law in 1694. Lambertini then became a curial official, rising to important positions in the Congregation of the Council and Congregation of Rites. He was appointed archbishop of Ancona in 1727, made cardinal in 1728, and archbishop of Bologna in 1731. Lambertini was probably the most prolific papal scholar since the Middle Ages. His most enduring work was a four-volume study of the history of canonization (1734–1738), which proposed new procedures followed until the late twentieth century. He also wrote a history of episcopal synods, supporting their use (1748), and works in liturgy and canon law. The complete edition of his works appeared in twelve folio volumes between 1747 and 1751.

When Clement XII died on 6 February 1740, Lambertini was not considered a candidate for pope. But after six months of stalemate and negotiations, he was elected on the 255th ballot on 17 August 1740. Benedict XIV pursued policies of conciliation, moderation, and openness to contemporary intellectual trends. But he had to contend with war and Catholic monarchs determined to rule the church in their lands. Benedict XIV inherited state-church disputes with most of the Catholic monarchies of Europe; they demanded control over church appointments, that church properties be taxed, and that clergymen be subject to civil jurisdiction. Benedict concluded new concordats with Piedmont-Savoy (1741), the Kingdom of Naples (1741), Portugal (1745), Spain (1753), and Austria (1757). Because he was negotiating from weakness, he had to make substantial concessions. In the most extreme case, he gave the Spanish crown the right of appointment to twelve thousand church positions in Spain, leaving the papacy with the right to appoint only fifty-two minor offices. Benedict was forced to concede much in order to retain Spain's support at a time when Austrian armies were ravaging Italy and the papal state during the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748). While he conceded rights of patronage, he probably increased the moral authority of papacy and earned goodwill.

Benedict also had to deal with Frederick II, king of Prussia and a nominal Protestant. Frederick annexed Catholic Silesia in 1741 and began to impose civil legislation on Silesia's Catholics in marriage laws, benefices, and jurisdiction. After lengthy negotiations, the pope and Frederick reached an uneasy accommodation in 1748, even though Frederick did not completely keep his word. Still, European public opinion praised Benedict for his willingness to seek accommodation with a Protestant and absolutist ruler. In internal church matters and administration of the papal state, Benedict had greater success. He emphasized the formation of the clergy and the obligation of residence and of regular pastoral visits to his bishops. He prohibited religious excesses by banning trumpets in church services and eliminating public flagellations and some feast days on which work was suspended. In 1742 he resolved a bitter dispute concerning the extent to which missionaries might include other traditions in church rites. Benedict curbed the Jesuit use of Chinese rites but permitted some accommodation to Indian culture ("Malabar rites").

Benedict XIV was open and sympathetic to the activities of some of the leading scholars of the century and enjoyed their company. He supported Ludovico Muratori (1672–1750), Italy's leading historian, some of whose positions on church-state matters displeased the papacy. He added new professorships to the universities of Rome and Bologna, enlarged the Vatican Library collections, and restored some of the monuments of Rome. He provided the money for the completion of the Trevi Fountain in 1742.

In 1745 Voltaire (1694–1778) wrote to Benedict to ask if he would accept the dedication of his play, Mahomet. Benedict agreed, and sent Voltaire some gold medals in return, as was the custom. After Voltaire made the correspondence known, Benedict received criticism for his friendly relations with the notorious anticlerical. He responded that it was important to have some links with a person of such importance in the world of letters. The gesture earned praise from partisans of the Enlightenment across Europe, including Protestant England.

However, the differences between the papacy and the Enlightenment remained strong. Benedict placed Montesquieu's Esprit des lois (Spirit of the laws) on the Index of Prohibited Books in 1752, and he renewed the church's condemnation of Freemasonry in 1751. Benedict XIV died on 3 May 1758.

Benedict XIV displayed an openness to Enlightenment thinkers and willingness to embrace change. Perhaps his greatest success was communication with writers and scholars, especially Italians. He negotiated concordats with Catholic rulers but was unable to improve substantially the position of the church. Probably no papal action would have staved off the assaults that began in the 1760s with the suppression of the Jesuits and continued with the seizure of church properties and the suppression of Catholicism during the French Revolution. Benedict XIV stands as a pope who practiced openness and moderation in troubled times with mixed results.

Bibliography

Haynes, Renée. Philosopher King. The Humanist Pope Benedict XIV. London, 1970. Concentrates on his career before becoming pope and scholarship.

Pastor, Ludwig von. The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages. Vol. 25: Benedict XIV (1740–1758). Vol. 26: Benedict XIV (1740–1758). Clement XIII (1758–1769). Translated by E. F. Peeler. St. Louis, 1949 and 1950. Detailed account of his pontificate.

Rosa, Mario. "Benedetto XIV." Dizionario biografico degli italiani. Vol. 8, pp. 393–408. Rome, 1966. Excellent summary of his life with extensive bibliography.

——. Riformatori e ribelli nel '700 religioso italiano. Bari, 1969. Pp. 49–85, 264–265 deal with Benedict XIV.

—PAUL F. GRENDLER

(1675-1758)

Pope Benedict XIV, born Prospero Lambertini of a noble Italian family, is credited with making the first modern objective "scientific" studies of the paranormal in Italy. Lambertini became one of the best educated people of his day, attaining doctorates in both law and theology. Ordained to the priesthood, he became bishop, cardinal (1728), then archbishop of Bologna (1731). From 1702 to 1722 he served as the "devil's advocate" in a series of cases of people proposed for canonization by the Roman Catholic Church. Among the issues the Church investigated in that process were alleged miraculous occurrences credited to the candidate proposed for sainthood.

Lambertini quickly gained a reputation as one who admitted the possibility of miracles but took a very skeptical view of reports of paranormal phenomena. He refused to regard as a "miracle" any event that could result from natural phenomena. He made independent studies of luminous phenomena, nonconventional healings, and extrasensory perception (ESP). He came to see ESP as a natural phenomenon neither spiritually nor diabolically based. He capped his career with the publication of a four-volume work, De Canonization Santorum (1734-38), which had a marked effect upon the thinking of the Church on miracles in a still very superstitious age.

Lambertini was elected to the papal chair in 1740. He gained a reputation as an educated and witty leader and earned the approbation of Voltaire, who dedicated one of his plays to him.

Sources:

Haynes, R. Philosopher King: The Humanist Pope Benedict XIV. London: Weidenfield & Nicolson, 1970.

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