Porphyrias: Diagnosis

Depending on the array of symptoms an individual may exhibit, the possibility of porphyria may not immediately come to a physician's mind. In the absence of a family history of porphyria, non-specific symptoms, such as abdominal pain and vomiting, may be attributed to other disorders. Neurological symptoms, including confusion and hallucinations, can lead to an initial suspicion of psychiatric disease. Diagnosis is more easily accomplished in cases in which non-specific symptoms appear in combination with symptoms more specific to porphyria, like neuropathy, sensitivity to sunlight, or certain other manifestations. Certain symptoms, such as urine the color of port wine, are hallmark signs very specific to porphyria. DNA analysis is not yet of routine diagnostic value.

A common initial test measures protoporphyrins in the urine. However, if skin sensitivity to light is a symptom, a blood plasma test is indicated. If these tests reveal abnormal levels of protoporphyrins, further tests are done to measure heme precursor levels in red blood cells and the stool. The presence and estimated quantity of porphyrin and protoporphyrins in biological samples are easily detected using spectrofluorometric testing. Spectrofluorometric testing uses a spectrofluorometer that directs light of a specific strength at a fluid sample. The porphyrins and protoporphyrins in the sample absorb the light energy and fluoresce, or glow. The spectrofluorometer detects and measures fluorescence, which indicates the amount of porphyrins and protoporphyrins in the sample.

Whether heme precursors occur in the blood, urine, or stool gives some indication of the type of porphyria, but more detailed biochemical testing is required to determine their exact identity. Making this determination yields a strong indicator of which enzyme in the heme biosynthesis pathway is defective; which, in turn, allows a diagnosis of the particular type of porphyria.

Biochemical tests rely on the color, chemical properties, and other unique features of each heme precursor. For example, a screening test for acute intermittent porphyria (AIP) is the Watson-Schwartz test. In this test, a special dye is added to a urine sample. If one of two heme precursors—porphobilinogen or urobilinogen—is present, the sample turns pink or red. Further testing is necessary to determine whether the precursor present is porphobilinogen or urobilinogen—only porphobilinogen is indicative of AIP.

Other biochemical tests rely on the fact that heme precursors become less soluble in water (able to be dissolved in water) as they progress further through the heme biosynthesis pathway. For example, to determine whether the Watson-Schwartz urine test is positive for porphobilinogen or urobilinogen, chloroform is added to the test tube. Chloroform is a water-insoluble substance. Even after vigorous mixing, the water and chloroform separate into two distinct layers. Urobilinogen is slightly insoluble in water, while porphobilinogen tends to be water-soluble. The porphobilinogen mixes more readily in water than chloroform, so if the water layer is pink (from the dye added to the urine sample), that indicates the presence of porphobilinogen, and a diagnosis of AIP is probable.

As a final test, measuring specific enzymes and their activities may be done for some types of porphyrias; however, such tests are not done as a screening method. Certain enzymes, such as porphobilinogen deaminase (the defective enzyme in AIP), can be easily extracted from red blood cells; other enzymes, however, are less readily collected or tested. Basically, an enzyme test involves adding a certain amount of the enzyme to a test tube that contains the precursor it is supposed to modify. Both the production of modified precursor and the rate at which it appears can be measured using laboratory equipment. If a modified precursor is produced, the test indicates that the enzyme is doing its job. The rate at which the modified precursor is produced can be compared to a standard to measure the efficiency of the enzyme.

— Julia Barrett; Judy Hawkins