Religious views on female genital mutilation

Religious views on female genital mutilation (FGM) have often been highly critical. Evidence suggests that female genital cutting might be a cultural relic from pre-monotheistic African tribal religions, given that the practice is mentioned as far back as 163 BC. Muslim scholars have often been divided on whether it should be considered as a non-religious traditional custom, or whether it should be specifically condemned by religious authorities.

FGM in traditional African cultures and religions

Girls in Ancient Egypt

The traditional cultural practice of FGM predates both Islam and Christianity. A Greek papyrus from 163 B.C. mentions girls in Egypt undergoing circumcision ^[1] but it is not widely accepted to have originated in Egypt and the Nile valley at the time of the Pharaohs.^[2] By Graeco-Roman times, however, it was an accepted practice.^[3] Evidence from mummies has not shown both Type I and Type III FGM present,^[3] although some sources dealing primarily with the modern issue state otherwise.^[4] (Note that the earliest evidence of male circumcision is also from Ancient Egypt.) Amnesty International says that the prevalence of the practice of FGM is unknown, and that the procedure is now only practiced by some Muslims and animists.^[5]

The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services states that the custom of FGM "cuts across religions and is practiced by Muslims, Christians, Jews and followers of indigenous religions."^[6]

Traditional African cleanliness

Medical justifications offered by cultural tradition are regarded by scientists and doctors as unsubstantiated. Some African societies consider FGM part of maintaining cleanliness, as it removes secreting parts of the genitalia. Vaginal secretions, in reality, play a critical part in maintaining female health. Some Bambara and Dogon believe that babies die if they touch the clitoris during birth.^[7] In some areas of Africa, there exists the belief that a newborn child has elements of both sexes. In the male body, the foreskin of the penis is considered to be the female element. In the female body, the clitoris is considered to be the male element. Hence when the adolescent is reaching puberty, these elements are removed to make the indication of sex clearer.^[7]

While there are differing rates of FGM prevalence in different religions like Islam and Christianity, prevalence rates also vary by culture. These variances preclude an unequivocal link between religion and FGM.^[8] However, there is debate as to whether FGM functions as a religious practice or a cultural one in particular religious subcultures.

Views in monotheistic religions

Christianity

FGM has never been part of Christianity as a faith system. There are no scriptural or doctrinal documents existing within the larger Christian tradition that even address the issue. The only contemporary examples of Christians practicing FGM are in Africa. As FGM rituals predated the missionaries' work in North Africa, many African tribes continue the practice as a matter of cultural tradition, unrelated to religious belief.^{[citation needed]}

Judaism

While Brit Milah is mandated by the Bible, and considered one of Judaism's most basic commandments, mention of female circumcision appears nowhere in Judaism. The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion states that female circumcision was never allowed in Judaism.^[9]

The minority Ethiopian Jewish community (Beta Israel) practice FGM in a non-religious ceremony. It may be performed only by a Jewish woman.^[10] Toubia (1995) states that "female circumcision is not even mentioned in any religious text," and that scholars in Africa "would testify that [in Africa] traditional and tribal rituals commonly supersede religion".^[11] Many Ethiopian Jews who emigrate to Israel abandon the practice of FGM.^[10]

Islam

In Islamic texts, FGM is referred to as khafḍ (Arabic: خفض‎)^[12] or khifaḍ^[13] (Arabic: خِفَض‎). According to McAuliffe, female genital cutting is not commanded by the Qur'an,^[14] however, Type 1 circumcision (also called Sunna Circumcision) is practised by many Sunni Muslims although it has a controversial religious basis in Islam, and is mainly derived from culture. Cultural and religious intertwining caused the incorrect belief that female circumcision is related to the religion of Islam. ^[15][16][17]

Sheikh Ali Gomaa has stated that "excision is a practice totally banned by Islam because of the compelling evidence of the extensive damage it causes to women's bodies and minds." ^[18]

Sunni view

None of the four Sunni schools of law (Madhhab) speaks explicitly out against or in favor of female genital mutilation. Thus the practice is unrelated to the religion of Islam. There are dichotomous differences of opinion among Sunni scholars in regards to female genital cutting. These differences of opinion range from forbidden to obligatory. The debate focuses around a hadith from the Sunni collections. One narration states that "a woman used to perform circumcision in Medina. Muhammad said to her, 'Do not cut severely as that is better for a woman and more desirable for a husband.'"^[19]Abu Dawood, who relates the narration in his collection, states the hadith is poor in authenticity.^[20] Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani describes this hadith as poor in authenticity, and quotes Imam Ahmad Bayhaqi’s point of view that it is "poor, with a broken chain of transmission" ^[21] Zein al-Din al-Iraqi points out in his commentary on Al-Ghazali’s Ihya ulum al-din (I:148) that the mentioned hadith has a weak chain of transmission."^[22] Yusuf ibn Abd-al-Barr comments: "Those who consider (female) circumcision a sunna, use as evidence this hadith of Abu al-Malih, which is based solely on the evidence of Hajjaj ibn Artaa, who cannot be admitted as an authority when he is the sole transmitter. The consensus of Muslim scholars shows that circumcision is for men".^[23]

Imam Shams-ul-haq Azeemabadi asserts that, "[t]he Hadith of female circumcision has been reported through so many ways all of which are weak, blemished and defective, and thus it is unacceptable to prove a legal ruling through such ways."^[22] While some scholars reject hadiths that refer to FGM on grounds of inauthenticity, other scholars argue that authenticity alone does not confer legitimacy. One of the sayings used to support FGM practices is the hadith (349) in Sahih Muslim: Aisha narrated an authentic hadith that the Prophet said: "When a man sits between the four parts (arms and legs of his wife) and the two circumcised parts meet, then ghusl is obligatory." Dr. Muhammad Salim al-Awwa, Secretary General of the World Union of the Muslim Ulemas, states that while the hadith is authentic, it is not evidence of legitimacy. He states that the Arabic for "the two circumcision organs" is a single word used to connote two forms; however the plural term for one of the forms is used to denote not two of the same form, but two different forms characterized as a singular of the more prominent form. For example, in Arabic, the word with the female gender can be chosen to make the dual form, such as in the expression "the two Marwas", referring to the two hills of As-Safa and Al-Marwa (not "two of the same hills, each called Al-Marwa") in Mecca.^[24] He goes on to state that, while the female form is used to denote both male and female genitalia, it is identified with the prominent aspect of the two forms, which, in this case, is only the male circumcised organ. He further states that the connotation of circumcision is not transitive. Dr. al-Awwa concludes that the hadith is specious because "such an argument can be refuted by the fact that in Arabic language, two things or persons may be given one quality or name that belongs only to one of them for an effective cause." ^[22] [e.g. the usage in "Qur'an in Surah Al-Furqan(25):53", "bahrayn" is the dual form of "bahr" (sea) meaning "sea (salty and bitter) and river (sweet and thirst-allaying)", and not "two seas".]

In March 2005, Dr Ahmed Talib, Dean of the Faculty of Sharia at Al-Azhar University, stated: "All practices of female circumcision and mutilation are crimes and have no relationship with Islam. Whether it involves the removal of the skin or the cutting of the flesh of the female genital organs... it is not an obligation in Islam."^[25] Both Christian and Muslim leaders have publicly denounced the practice of FGM since 1998.^[26] A conference at Al-Azhar University in Cairo (December 2006) brought prominent Muslim clergy to denounce the practice as not being necessary under the umbrella of Islam.^[27] Although there was some reluctance amongst some of the clergy, who preferred to hand the issue to doctors, making the FGM a medical decision, rather than a religious one, the Grand Mufti Ali Jumaa of Egypt signed a resolution denouncing the practice.^[28]

In Mauritania, where "health campaigners estimate that more than 70 percent of Mauritanian girls undergo the partial or total removal of their external genitalia for non-medical reasons", 34 Islamic scholars signed a fatwa banning the practice in January 2010. Their aim was to prevent people from citing religion as a justification for genital mutilation. The authors cited the work of Islamic legal expert Ibn al-Hajj as support for their assertion that "[s]uch practices were not present in the Maghreb countries over the past centuries". FGM is "not an instinctive habit, according to the Malkis; therefore, it was abandoned in northern and western regions of the country," added the authors.^{[29] [30]}

References