| Serbian Revolution | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of Modern Serbia | |||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||
 Serbian revolutionaries Volunteers from Habsburg Empire Russian Empire |
 Ottoman Empire First French Empire |
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| Commanders | |||||||
| Karađorđe Petrović Miloš Obrenović Mateja Nenadović Veljko Petrović Stanoje Glavaš |
Sultan Selim III Marashli Pasha Sultan Mahmud II Napoleon Bonaparte |
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| Strength | |||||||
| 80,000 Serbs[citation needed] | 300,000 Ottomans[citation needed] | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| 05,000 Serbs[citation needed] | 75,000 Ottomans[citation needed] | ||||||
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Serbian revolution or Revolutionary Serbia refers to the national and social revolution of the Serbian people between 1804 and 1815, during which Serbia managed to fully emancipate from the Ottoman Empire and exist as a sovereign European nation-state, and a latter period (1815-1833), marked by intense negotiations between Belgrade and Ottoman Empire. The term was invented by a famous German historian Leopold von Ranke in his book Die Serbische Revolution, published in 1829.[1] These events marked the foundation of modern Serbia.[2] While the first phase of the revolution (1804-1815) was in fact a war of independence, the second phase (1815-1833) resulted in official recognition of a suzerain Serbian state by the Porte, thus bringing the revolution to its end.[3]
The above mentioned time frame covers several phases of the revolution:
- First Serbian Uprising (1804–13), led by Karađorđe Petrović
- Hadži Prodan's revolt (1814)
- Second Serbian Uprising (1815) under Miloš Obrenović
- Official recognition of the Serbian state (1815-1833)
The Proclamation[4] (1809) by Karadjordje in the capital Belgrade represented the peak of the revolution. It called for unity of the Serbian nation, emphasising the importance of freedom of religion, Serbian history and rule of law- all of which Ottoman Empire couldn't- or has denied to provide, being a non-secular Muslim state.[4] It also called on Serbs to stop paying taxes to the Porte because they were based on religious affiliation.
The ultimate result of the uprisings was Serbia's suzerainty from the Ottoman Empire. Principality of Serbia was established, governed by its own Parliament, Government, Constitution and its own royal dynasty.[5] Social element of the revolution was achieved through introduction of the bourgeois society values in Serbia,[6] which is why it was considered the world's easternmost bourgeois revolt,[7] which culminated with the abolition of feudalism in 1806- just 15 years after the French revolution.[8] First constitution in the Balkans and its oldest university- Belgrade's Great Academy (1808) added to the achievements of the young Serb state.[9] By 1833, Serbia was officially recognized as a tributary to the Porte and as such, ackgnowledged as a hereditary monarchy. De jure independence of the Principality was internationally recognized during the second half of the 19th century.
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Background (1791-1804)
The withdrawal of the Austrians from Serbia in 1791 marked the end of the Kočina Krajina Serb rebellion, which was ignited by Austria in 1788. Ottoman Empire annexed the short-lived Habsburg Serbia, retaliated against the perpetrators of the uprising and their families, thus forcing thousands into exile in Austria. Reforms made by the Porte to ease the pressure on Serbs were only temporary; by 1799 the Janissary corps have returned, suspended the Serb autonomy and drastically increased taxes, enforcing martial law in Serbia.
Serb leaders from both sides of the Danube began to conspire against the dahias. When they found out, they rounded up and murdered tens of Serbian noblemen on the main square of Valjevo in an event known today as Seča knezova (Slaughter of the Dukes in 1804).
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"Therefore, dear Serb brothers...now when it's only up to us, take an example from those peoples who foster unity and order, for they have become mighty and prosperous; offer advises to each other, as the priests do, when they teach their flock: teach them the words of Christ, the ones which say: As I have loved you, so you also should love one another. Not so much by words, but by your deeds... by doing so, the end of our quest will bring out the old glory of Serbia to show, who we indeed are: the children of our glorious and brave ancestors"
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The massacre outraged the Serbian people and incited the revolt across the Pashaluk of Belgrade. Within days, in the small Šumadija village of Orašac, the Serbs gathered to proclaim the uprising, electing Karađorđe Petrović as the leader. That afternoon, a Turkish inn (caravanserai) in Orašac was burned and its residents fled or were killed, followed by similar actions country-wide. Soon the cities Valjevo and Požarevac were liberated, and the siege of Belgrade launched.
Initially fighting to restore their local privileges within the Ottoman system (until 1807), the revolutionaries - supported by the wealthy Serbian community from southern Hungary (present-day Vojvodina) and Serb officers from Austrian Military Frontier - offered themselves to be placed under the protection of Habsburg-, Russian- and French Empires respectively, entering, as a new political factor, into the converging aspirations of the Great Powers during the Napoleonic wars in Europe.[11]
Revolution erupts: First Serbian Uprising (1804-1813)
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"My eyes and my heart greeted the remains of those brave men whose cut-off heads made the cornerstone of the independence of their homeland. May the Serbs keep this monument! It will always teach their children the value of the independence of a people, showing them the real price their fathers had to pay for it."
—Alphonse de Lamartine (1833)[12]
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During almost 10 years of the First Serbian Uprising (1804-1813), Serbia perceived itself as an independent state for the first time after 300 years of Ottoman and short-lasting Austrian occupations. Encouraged by the Russian Empire, the demands for self-government within Ottoman Empire in 1804 evolved into a war for independence by 1807. Combining patriarchal peasant democracy with modern national goals the Serbian revolution was attracting thousands of volunteers among the Serbs from across the Balkans and Central Europe. The Serbian Revolution ultimately became a symbol of the nation-building process in the Balkans, provoking peasant unrests among the Christians in both Greece and Bulgaria.[11] Following the successful siege with 25,000 men, on 8 January 1807 the charismatic leader of the revolt Karadjordje Petrović proclaimed Belgrade the capital of Serbia.
Serbs responded to the Ottoman brutalities by establishing its separate institutions: Governing Council (Praviteljstvujušči Sovjet), the Great Academy (Velika škola), the Theological Academy (Bogoslovija) and other administrative bodies. Karadjordje and other revolutionary leaders sent their children to the Great Academy, which had among its students also Vuk Stefanović Karadžić (1787-1864), the famous reformer of Serbian alphabet. Belgrade was repopulated by local military leaders, merchants and craftsmen but also by an important group of enlightened Serbs from the Habsburg Empire who gave a new cultural and political framework to the egalitarian peasant society of Serbia. Dositej Obradović, a prominent figure of the Balkan Enlightenment, the founder of the Great Academy, became the first Minister of Education of Serbia in 1811.[11]
Following the French invasion in 1812 the Russian Empire withdrew its support for the Serb rebels; unwilling to accept anything less than independence,[11] the revolutionaries were fought into submission following the brutal Ottoman incursion into Serbia.[6] One quarter of Serbia's population (at the moment around 100,000 people) were exiled into Habsburg Empire, including the leader of the Uprising, Karadjordje Petrovic.[13] Recaptured by the Ottomans in October 1813, Belgrade became a scene of brutal revenge, with hundreds of its citizens slaughtered and thousands sold into slavery as far as Asia. Direct Ottoman rule also meant the abolition of all Serbian institutions and the return of Ottoman Turks to Serbia.[11]
Hadži Prodanova buna (1814)
Despite the lost battle, the tensions nevertheless persisted. In 1814 an unsuccessful Hadži Prodan's revolt was launched by Hadži Prodan Gligorijević, one of the veterans of the First Serbian Uprising. He knew the Turks would arrest him, so he thought it would be the best to resist the Ottomans; Milos Obrenović, another veteran, felt the time was not right for an uprising and did not provide assistance.
Hadži Prodan's Uprising soon failed and he fled to Austria. After a riot at a Turkish estate in 1814, the Turkish authorities massacred the local population and publicly impaled 200 prisoners at Belgrade.[13] By March 1815, Serbs have held several meetings and decided upon a new revolt.
Final stage: Second Serbian Uprising (1815-1817)
The Second Serbian Uprising (1815-1817) was a second phase of the national revolution of the Serbs against the Ottoman Empire, which erupted shortly after the brutal annexation of the country to the Ottoman Empire and the failed Hadži Prodan's revolt. The revolutionary council proclaimed an uprising in Takovo on April 23 1815, with Milos Obrenović chosen as the leader (while Karadjordje was still in exile in Austria). The decision of the Serb leaders was based on two reasons. First, they feared a general massacre of knezes. Second, they learned that Karageorge was planning to return from exile in Russia. The anti-Karageorge faction, including Milos Obrenovic, was anxious to forestall Karageorge and keep him out of power.[13]
Fighting resumed at Easter in 1815, and Milos became supreme leader of the new revolt. When the Ottomans discovered this they sentenced all of its leaders to death. The Serbs fought in battles at Ljubic, Čačak, Palez, Požarevac and Dublje and managed to reconquer the Pashaluk of Belgrade. Milos advocated a policy of restraint:[13] captured Ottoman soldiers were not killed and civilians were released. His announced goal was not independence but an end to abusive misrule.
Wider European events now helped the Serbian cause. Political and diplomatic means in negotiations between the Prince of Serbia and the Ottoman Porte, instead of further war clashes coincided with the political rules within the framework of Metternich’s Europe. Prince Miloš Obrenović, an astute politician and able diplomat, in order to confirm his hard won loyalty to the Porte in 1817 ordered the assassination of Karadjordje Petrovic. The final defeat of Napoleon in 1815 raised Turkish fears that Russia might again intervene in the Balkans. To avoid this the sultan agreed to make Serbia suzerain- semi independent state nominally responsible to the Porte.[11]
Negotiations/ Legal Status of Serbia
In mid 1815, the first negotiations began between Obrenović and Marashli Ali Pasha, the Ottoman governor. The result was acknowledgment of a Serbian Principality by the Ottoman Empire. Although a suzerain of the Porte (yearly tax tribute), it was, in most means, an independent state.
By 1817, Obrenović succeeded in forcing Marashli Ali Pasha to negotiate an unwritten agreement, thus ending the Second Serbian uprising. The same year, Karadjordje, the leader of the First Uprising (and Obrenović's rival for the throne) returned to Serbia and was assassinated by Obrenović's orders; Obrenović consequently received the title of Prince of Serbia.
The Convention of Ackerman (1828), the Treaty of Adrianople (1829) and finally, the Hatt-i Sharif (1830), formally recognized the suzerainty of Principality of Serbia with Miloš Obrenović I as its hereditary Prince.
State organs
During the intermezzo period ("virtual autonomy") (the negotiation process between Belgrade and Istanbul 1817-1830) Prince Miloš Obrenović I secured a gradual but effective reduction of Turkish power and Serbian institutions inevitably filled the vacuum. Despite opposition from the Porte, Milos created the Serbian army, transferred properties to the young Serbian bourgeoisie and passed the "homestead laws" which protected peasants from usurers and bankruptcies.[13]
New school curriculum and the re-establishment of the Serbian Orthodox Church reflected the Serbian national interest. Unlike the Serbian medieval tradition, Prince Milos has separated the education from religion, on the merits that he could oppose the Church through independent education (secularism) more easily. By that time the Great Academy in Belgrade has been in operation for decades (since 1808).[13]
Western ideas (1789-1817)
The new circumstances, such as the Austrian occupation of Serbia, rise of the Serbian elite across the Danube, Napoleon's conquests in the Balkans and the reforms in Russian Empire also meant exposure to new ideas. Serbs could now clearly compare how their compatriots make progress in Christian Austria, Illyrian provinces etc while the Ottoman Serbs were still subjects to a religion-based tax which treated them as second class citizens.[13]
During the Austrian occupation of Serbia (1788-1791), many Serbs served as soldiers and officers in Habsburg armies, where they acquired knowledge about military tactics, organization and weapons. Others were employed in administrative offices in Hungary or in the occupied zone. They began to travel in search of trade and education, and were exposed to European ideas about secular society, politics, law and philosophy, including both rationalism and Romanticism. There was an active Serbian community in southern Habsburg Empire, from where ideas made their way southwards (across the Danube). Another role model was the Russian Empire, the only independent Slavic and Orthodox country, which had recently reformed itself and was now a serious menace to the Turks. The Russian experience implied hope for Serbia.[13]
Other Serbian thinkers found strengths in the Serbian nation itself. Two top Serbian scholars were influenced by Western learning to turn their attention to Serbia's own language and literature. One was Dositej Obradovic (1743), a former priest who left for Western Europe. Shocked that his people had no modern secular literature, he assembled grammars and dictionaries to create a modern Serbian language, wrote some books himself and translated others. Others followed his lead and revived tales of Serbia's medieval glory. He later became the first Minister of Education of modern Serbia (1805).
The second figure was Vuk Karadzic (1787). Vuk was less influenced by Enlightenment rationalism like Dositej Obradoviv and more by Romanticism which romanticized rural and peasant communities. Vuk collected and published Serbian epic poetry, work that helped to build Serbian awareness of a common identity based in shared customs and shared history. This kind of linguistic and cultural self-awareness was a central feature of German nationalism in this period, and Serbian intellectuals now applied the same ideas to the Balkans.
References
- ^ English translation: Leopold Ranke, A History of Serbia and the Serbian Revolution. Translated from the German by Mrs Alexander Kerr (London: John Murray, 1847)
- ^ L. S. Stavrianos, The Balkans since 1453 (London: Hurst and Co., 2000), p. 248-250.
- ^ Rados Ljusic, Knezevina Srbija pg 483/485
- ^ a b Povest - Prikljucenije
- ^ Čedomir Antić (1998). "The First Serbian Uprising". The Royal Family of Serbia. http://www.royalfamily.org/ustanak/USTANAK_ENG.htm.
- ^ a b The History of Yugoslavia Serbia and Montenegro until 2006
- ^ 200 godina ustanka
- ^ http://www.nbs.bg.ac.yu/view_file.php?file_id=57
- ^ University of Belgrade
- ^ http://www.douklia.net/povest/proglasenije.html
- ^ a b c d e f http://www.batakovic.com/belgrade19thcent.html#_ftnref23
- ^ Journey to the East
- ^ a b c d e f g h http://staff.lib.msu.edu/sowards/balkan/lecture5.html
See also
- Principality of Serbia
- Pashaluk of Belgrade
- Vojvodina of Serbia and Tamis Banat
- Habsburg Serbia
- List of Serbian monarchs
- Military history of Serbia
- History of the Serbian-Turkish wars
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