Siebenjähriger Krieg

Siebenjähriger Krieg, the Seven Years War between Prussia and Austria, was fought simultaneously with the colonial war between Great Britain and France, while all powers were committed by a new system of coalitions to the two German powers (see Diplomatic Revolution). The Seven Years War in Germany (also known as the Third Silesian War, see Schlesische Kriege) was a direct outcome of the Silesian wars and was opened by King Friedrich II of Prussia. Aware of the uneasy peace, he had by June 1756 reliable information about an alliance against him, aiming at the recovery of Silesia for Austria and the dismemberment of Prussia. After failing to receive satisfactory assurances about Austrian movements from Maria Theresia, he invaded Saxony on 29 August 1756.

After the indecisive battle at Lobositz in Bohemia (1 October 1756) Saxony capitulated on 16 October 1756. In Dresden Friedrich found secret papers confirming hostile moves against him. August III fled to Warsaw and Friedrich incorporated his troops in the Prussian army. His aim to strike before the allies were ready was nevertheless only partially realized. By the following year he had to prepare to fight on all frontiers, against the Swedes in the north, against the Russians in the east, and in the south and west against the Austrians and the French. The Diet at Regensburg voted on 17 January 1757 for imperial execution (Reichsexecution) against Prussia. Prussia's only aid consisted of an Anglo-Hanoverian army, from 1757 under Ferdinand of Brunswick (Ferdinand von Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel), and of British subsidies.

Although victorious at Prague (6 May 1757), Friedrich was soon defeated on Bohemian soil at Kolin (18 June 1757). His western frontier was weakened by the defeat of the Duke of Cumberland at Hastenbeck (26 July 1757) by the French, which was followed by the Convention of Kloster-Zeven (8 September 1757) necessitating the entire reorganization of the defence. Sweden invaded Pomerania from Stralsund, and the Russians defeated the Prussians in East Prussia at Groß-Jägersdorf (30 August 1757) and again in Silesia at Görlitz (7 September 1757). In Saxony Friedrich himself defeated the Franco-Imperial army at Roßbach (5 November 1757) and in Silesia at Leuthen (5 December 1757). Austria and France, however, remained unwilling to make peace. In 1758 Friedrich therefore advanced into Moravia, intending to take Olmütz on his way to Vienna. The town, however, resisted his siege for seven weeks, after which he had to withdraw, his failure going to the credit of the Austrian commander, Laudon.

As East Prussia and Poland were by now in the hands of the Russians, Friedrich withdrew to defend Brandenburg at Zorndorf (25 August 1758). In the drawn battle heavy losses were sustained by both sides. From Brandenburg the King moved to Saxony, where the Austrian commander Daun defeated him at Hochkirch (14 October 1758); in spite of this defeat Friedrich succeeded in relieving Neiße. In the following year Duke Ferdinand endeavoured unsuccessfully to drive the French from Frankfurt. This setback was compensated by a victory won by the combined British and Hanoverian forces at Minden (1 August 1759). A few days later Friedrich was defeated by the Russians and the Austrians (under Laudon) at Kunersdorf (12 August 1759), in the south-east corner of Brandenburg. Of his 43, 000 men he lost almost half. Only the fact that the allies did not follow up their victory saved Prussia from ruin. The Prussian army (under Fouquet) also suffered defeat in Silesia, at Landshut (23 June 1760) and Glatz (26 July 1760); but at Liegnitz (15 August 1760) and Torgau in Saxony (3 November 1760) Friedrich himself defeated the Austrian commanders Laudon and Daun. At Torgau the last-minute arrival of the veteran Zieten turned the battle into a decisive Prussian victory.

Marches and skirmishes continued, but victory was no longer, it seemed, to be decided on the battlefield. Yet Friedrich hung on, for as long as considerable Prussian territories (Pomerania, Neumark, and Silesia) were occupied, a peace effected by diplomacy would have reduced Prussia to a third-rate power. Friedrich was resigned to this after the loss of British subsidies, when the Tsarina Elizabeth died in January 1762 and her successor, Tsar Peter III, reversed the Russian alliance into support of Prussia. When he was deposed and succeeded by Catherine II in July 1762, the new Tsarina decided for neutrality. The war ended after all on the battlefield: Friedrich's victories at Burkersdorf (21 July 1762) and Schweidnitz (9 October 1762) freed Silesia, and the victory at Freiberg in Saxony (29 October 1762) by Prince Heinrich von Preußen over the combined imperial and Austrian army completely changed Friedrich's prestige in the negotiations for peace. It was a tragic blow to Maria Theresia and Kaunitz.

Five days after the Peace of Paris terminating the colonial war was signed, Austria, Prussia, and Saxony concluded the Peace of Hubertusburg on 15 February 1763 (see Hubertusburger Friede). As the treaties of Dresden and Breslau concluding the first two Silesian Wars were confirmed, the war, which had exhausted Austrian as well as Prussian resources, had altered no boundaries. Silesia and the County of Glatz remained with Prussia. Friedrich, however, promised to support the election of Maria Theresia's son Joseph (see Joseph II) as King of the Romans in preparation for his succession to the imperial title. The significance of the three Silesian wars for the future of Germany was nevertheless greater than the territorial changes wrought by Friedrich might suggest. Henceforth Austria and Prussia remained the two great rival powers in the struggle for supremacy in Germany, also referred to as the ‘dualism’ (Dualismus) affecting developments over the next hundred years.

The Seven Years War with its Prussian defeats (Kolin, Hochkirch, Kunersdorf) and victories (Roßbach, Leuthen, Liegnitz, Torgau) has, because of Friedrich's personal skill and bravery and, above all, his extraordinary endurance, exercised an unusual fascination and is remembered in literary works and popular songs, among them J. W. L. Gleim, Kriegs- und Siegeslieder der Preußen (1758), and Anna Louisa Karsch, poems, also written during the war; C. A. Tiedge, Elegie auf dem Schlachtfelde bei Kunersdorf (in Elegien und vermischte Gedichte, 1803-7); Lessing, Minna von Barnhelm; Goethe, Dichtung und Wahrheit (Pt. I, Bk. 3); Johannes Gründler (1747-1845), Friedrich der Große oder die Schlacht bei Kunersdorf (1826); Otto Ludwig, Friedrich II. von Preußen, Fragment: Die Torgauer Heide (1844); C. F. Scherenberg, Leuthen, Schlachtengemälde (1852); Gustav zu Putlitz, Die Schlacht bei Mollwitz (1869); Martin Greif, Der Sieger von Torgau, Ballade (1882); K. Bleibtreu, Friedrich der Große bei Kolin, a story (1888); W. Raabe, Das Odfeld (1889) and Hastenbeck (1899), both novels.