Social and Civil Wars (91-82 bc). The Social War was the last occasion in which a substantial number of Italian peoples fought against Rome. It led directly to a civil war at Rome, in which Sulla was eventually to emerge triumphant. The Social War was caused by dissatisfaction among Rome's allies who had shared much of the burden of conquering the empire, but gained few of the benefits, in particular being denied citizenship. Discontent came to a head when a Roman politician who pledged to extend the franchise to the Italians was assassinated. The massacre of a Roman magistrate and his staff at Asculum signalled open warfare.
Only some of the Italians joined the open rebellion, but they swiftly mobilized 100, 000 men, the largest contingents being supplied by the Marsi under Poppaedius Silo, and the Samnites under Papius Mutilius. The Allies set up a rival state with a capital at Corfinium, renamed Italia. Virtually all of Rome's Latin allies, who enjoyed greater privileges than the Italians, stayed loyal, while other groups, such as the Etruscans, were mollified by the swift grant of citizenship. Each side fielded armies that were very similar in tactics, organization, and equipment, and both used African and Gallic auxiliary troops. The normal directness of Roman warfare made many of the battles very costly affairs.
The war divided broadly into two theatres. In the north, in Picenum along the Adriatic coast, the fighting focused in particular on the siege of Asculum, and in the south the Samnites made large-scale raids into neighbouring Campania, Apulia, and Lucania. Much of the early fighting was on a relatively small scale, as each side attempted to organize its armies, but the campaigns swiftly escalated. In this early fighting the Romans suffered a number of serious reverses, both consuls for the year 90 being defeated. At one stage the Senate was forced to conscript slaves to provide an immediate source of manpower. On another occasion, disturbed by the extravagant public displays of mourning which greeted the arrival of the bodies of a consul and most of his staff, it decreed that senior offices should be buried where they fell.
Rome may have come very close to defeat, but the presence with her armies of several experienced and able commanders did much to stabilize the situation. Marius and Cnaeus Pompeius Strabo, father of Pompey, did much to restore the situation in the north during 90. Strabo returned there as consul in 89, continuing the siege of Asculum and inflicting a massive defeat on an army of 60, 000 sent to its relief. Once Asculum surrendered the rising in the north was effectively over. In the southern campaigns Sulla embarked on a major offensive in 89, capturing enemy strongholds and defeating any armies sent to confront him. The Samnites maintained a determined resistance, but the result of the war was no longer in doubt and the last strongholds were gradually mopped up. The cost of the war had been massive in terms of human losses and damage to the agrarian prosperity of much of Italy.
Sulla gained considerable prestige through his campaigns against the Italians and easily secured the consulship for 88, and command in the war against Mithridates of Pontus. A keen rivalry then developed between Sulla and Marius, the latter supporting a radical tribune, Sulpicius, in an effort to gain the eastern command for himself. After rioting during which he was forced to take refuge in Marius' house, Sulla fled the city, and a law was passed giving his command to Marius. Although this action was scarcely legal, Sulla's was even less so: he joined his army and led it against Rome. None of the senior senators on his staff went with him. Rome had no garrison and Marius no time to raise an army to oppose him. He was chased out of the country, and Sulpicius was executed. Sulla declared his legislation invalid, carried out a few reforms, and then left to fight an eastern war.
Lucius Cornelius Cinna, elected consul for 87, mustered an army after Sulla left and joined with Marius. Cnaeus Octavius, the other consul, and Strabo attempted to defend Rome, but were defeated. Octavius was executed and Strabo died of disease soon afterwards. Marius and Cinna declared themselves consuls for 86 and freely massacred suspected opponents, but Marius too died of natural causes early in the year. There was a lull in the fighting in Italy while Sulla prosecuted the war against Mithridates. One of Cinna's associates was sent east with an army, ostensibly to co-operate in operations against Pontus, but failed to achieve much and was murdered by one of his subordinates (86). By 85 Sulla was close to victory and Cinna prepared to lead an army into Macedonia to confront him, but was killed when his own soldiers mutinied.
Cinna's consular colleague Cnaeus Carbo was in overall command of the forces arrayed against Sulla when he landed at Brundisium in 83. Men who had suffered because of Marius and Carbo, notably Pompey who proceeded to raise troops from his father's veterans, rallied to Sulla and augmented his forces. He defeated the First army sent against him, and then persuaded the soldiers of another, led by Lucius Scipio, to desert to his cause. Winter ended the active campaigning and both sides spent the next few months preparing their armies. Carbo enlisted the assistance of Marius' nephew in an attempt to use his uncle's reputation to inspire their supporters. In 82 a series of battles were fought, almost all significant victories for Sulla. He showed a particular vindictiveness against the Samnite troops which his enemies had raised in large numbers, evoking an echo of the Social War. Sulla took Rome and then faced the last major Marian army in the field. On 1 November 82, he defeated this 70, 000-strong army at a battle fought outside the Colline gate. The war was over in Italy, but fighting continued in Africa, Sicily, and Spain before all resistance was defeated. Sulla was elected dictator, executed his opponents and reformed the state, before resigning to return to private life in 80.
— Adrian K. Goldsworthy
