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Sol was the solar deity in Ancient Roman religion. He became identified with Janus at an early period, and only in the late Roman Empire re-appears as an independent Sun god, as Sol Invictus.
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Etymology
The Latin sol for "Sun" is the continuation of the PIE heteroclitic *Seh2ul- / *Sh2-en-, cognate to Germanic Sowilo, Sanskrit Surya, Greek Helios, Lithuanian Saulė.[1] also compare Latin "solis" to Etruscan "usil".
Identification with Janus
According to Roman sources, the worship of Sol was introduced by Titus Tatius.[2] Still in the Roman kingdom period, Sol came to be identified with Janus. Janus and Jana were worshipped as Sun and Moon, and were regarded as the highest of the gods, receiving their sacrifices before all the others.[3] Numa introduced the month Ianuarius. Traces of the worship of Sol Indiges, i.e. a deity Sol as independent from Janus, are scarce.
Sol Indiges
Sol Indiges ("the native sun" or "the invoked sun" - the etymology and meaning of the word "indiges" is disputed) represents the earlier, more agrarian form in which the Roman god Sol was worshipped. It was later replaced by Sol Invictus.
See also Di indigetes.
Sol Invictus
Sol Invictus ("Unconquered Sun") was the Roman state-supported sun god created by the emperor Aurelian in 274 and continued, overshadowing other Eastern cults in importance,[4] until the abolition of paganism under Theodosius I. Although known as a god, the term "Unconquered Sun God' is not found on any Roman document.
The Romans held a festival on December 25 of Dies Natalis Solis Invicti, "the birthday of the unconquered sun." December 25 was the date after the winter solstice,[5] with the first detectable lengthening of daylight hours. There was also a festival on December 19.[6]
The title Sol Invictus had also been applied to a number of other solar deities before and during this period. The type of Sol Invictus, though not the name, appears on imperial coinage from the time of Septimius Severus onwards.[7]
Though many Oriental cults were practised informally among the Roman legions from the mid-second century, only that of Sol Invictus was officially accepted and prescribed for the army.[8]
References
- ^ see e.g. EIEC, p. 556.
- ^ August. de Civ. Dei, iv. 23
- ^ Macrobius Saturnalia i. 9; Cicero De Natura Deorum ii. 27
- ^ Allan S. Hoey, "Official Policy towards Oriental Cults in the Roman Army" Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, 70, (1939:456-481) p 479f.
- ^ When Julius Caesar introduced the Julian Calendar in 45 BC, December 25 was approximately the date of the solstice. In modern times, the solstice falls on December 21 or 22.
- ^ "An inscription of unique interest from the reign of Licinius embodies the official prescription for the annual celebration by his army of a festival of Sol Invictuson December 19" (Hoey 1939:480 and note 128).
- ^ Hoey 1939:470, 479f and notes.
- ^ Hoey 1939:456.
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