A magnet (from Greek μαγνήτις λίθος magnḗtis líthos, "Magnesia_ad_Sipylumstone") is a material or object that produces a Magnetic_field. This magnetic field is invisible but is responsible for the most notable property of a magnet: a force that pulls on other Ferromagneticmaterials, such as Iron, and attracts or repels other magnets.

A permanent magnet is an object made from a material that is Magnetizeand creates its own persistent magnetic field. An everyday example is a Refrigerator_magnetused to hold notes on a refrigerator door. Materials that can be magnetized, which are also the ones that are strongly attracted to a magnet, are called Ferromagnetism(or Ferrimagnetic). These include Iron, Nickel, Cobalt, some alloys of Rare_earth_element, and some naturally occurring minerals such as Lodestone. Although ferromagnetic (and ferrimagnetic) materials are the only ones attracted to a magnet strongly enough to be commonly considered magnetic, all other substances respond weakly to a magnetic field, by one of several other types of Magnetism.

Ferromagnetic materials can be divided into magnetically "soft" materials like Annealing_(metallurgy) Iron, which can be magnetized but do not tend to stay magnetized, and magnetically "hard" materials, which do. Permanent magnets are made from "hard" ferromagnetic materials such as Alnicoand Ferritethat are subjected to special processing in a powerful magnetic field during manufacture, to align their internal Crystallitestructure, making them very hard to demagnetize. To demagnetize a saturated magnet, a certain magnetic field must be applied, and this threshold depends on Coercivityof the respective material. "Hard" materials have high coercivity, whereas "soft" materials have low coercivity.

An Electromagnetis made from a coil of wire that acts as a magnet when an Electric_currentpasses through it but stops being a magnet when the current stops. Often, the coil is wrapped around a core of ferromagnetic material like steel, which enhances the magnetic field produced by the coil.

The overall strength of a magnet is measured by its Magnetic_momentor, alternatively, the total Magnetic_fluxit produces. The local strength of magnetism in a material is measured by its Magnetization.

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HistoryMain article: History_of_electromagnetism

See also: Magnetism

Ancient people learned about magnetism from Lodestone, naturally magnetized pieces of iron ore. They are naturally created magnets, which attract pieces of iron. The word magnet in Greek meant "stone from Magnesia_(peripheral_unit)", a part of ancient Greece where lodestones were found. Lodestones suspended so they could turn were the first Magnetic_compass. The earliest known surviving descriptions of magnets and their properties are from Greece, India, and China around 2500 years ago.Answers.comAnswers.comAnswers.comThe properties of Lodestoneand their affinity for iron were written of by Pliny_the_Elderin his encyclopedia Naturalis_Historia.Answers.com

By the 12th to 13th centuries AD, magnetic Compasswere used in navigation in China, Europe, and elsewhere.Answers.com

Background on the physics of magnetism and magnetsFile:The_Effects_of_Magnetism.JPGFile:The_Effects_of_Magnetism.JPG

An ovoid-shaped Rare_earth_magnethanging from another

Magnetic fieldMain article: Magnetic_field

The Magnetic_field(also called magnetic B field or just magnetic field, usually denoted B) is a Vector_field. The magnetic B field Euclidean_vectorat a given point in space is specified by two properties:

1. Its direction, which is along the orientation of a Compass.
2. Its magnitude (also called strength), which is proportional to how strongly the compass needle orients along that direction.

In SIunits, the strength of the magnetic B field is given in Tesla_(unit).Answers.com

Magnetic momentMain article: Magnetic_moment

A magnet's magnetic moment (also called magnetic dipole moment and usually denoted μ) is a Vector_(geometry) that characterizes the magnet's overall magnetic properties. For a bar magnet, the direction of the magnetic moment points from the magnet's south pole to its north pole,Answers.comand the magnitude relates to how strong and how far apart these poles are. In SIunits, the magnetic moment is specified in terms of A·m2.

A magnet both produces its own magnetic field and responds to magnetic fields. The strength of the magnetic field it produces is at any given point proportional to the magnitude of its magnetic moment. In addition, when the magnet is put into an external magnetic field, produced by a different source, it is subject to a Torquetending to orient the magnetic moment parallel to the field.Answers.comThe amount of this torque is proportional both to the magnetic moment and the external field. A magnet may also be subject to a force driving it in one direction or another, according to the positions and orientations of the magnet and source. If the field is uniform in space, the magnet is subject to no net force, although it is subject to a torque.Answers.com

A wire in the shape of a circle with area A and carrying Electric_currentI is a magnet, with a magnetic moment of magnitude equal to IA.

MagnetizationMain article: Magnetization

The magnetization of a magnetized material is the local value of its magnetic moment per unit volume, usually denoted M, with units Meter.Answers.comIt is a Vector_field, rather than just a vector (like the magnetic moment), because different areas in a magnet can be magnetized with different directions and strengths (for example, because of domains, see below). A good bar magnet may have a magnetic moment of magnitude 0.1 A·m2 and a volume of 1 cm3, or 1×10−6 m3, and therefore an average magnetization magnitude is 100,000 A/m. Iron can have a magnetization of around a million amperes per meter. Such a large value explains why iron magnets are so effective at producing magnetic fields.

Two models for magnets: magnetic poles and atomic currentsSee also: Magnetic_momentMagnetic polesFile:VFPt_cylindrical_magnet_thumb.svgFile:VFPt_cylindrical_magnet_thumb.svg

Field of a cylindrical bar magnet calculated with Ampère's model

Although for many purposes it is convenient to think of a magnet as having distinct north and south magnetic poles, the concept of poles should not be taken literally: it is merely a way of referring to the two different ends of a magnet. The magnet does not have distinct north or south particles on opposing sides. If a bar magnet is broken into two pieces, in an attempt to separate the north and south poles, the result will be two bar magnets, each of which has both a north and south pole.

However, a version of the magnetic-pole approach is used by professional magneticians to design permanent magnets. In this approach, the divergence of the magnetization ∇•M inside a magnet and the surface normal component M•n are treated as a distribution of Magnetic_monopoles. This is a mathematical convenience and does not imply that there are actually monopoles in the magnet. If the magnetic-pole distribution is known, then the pole model gives the magnetic field H (see also Demagnetizing_field). Outside the magnet, the field B is proportional to H, while inside the magnetization must be added to H (see Answers.com). An extension of this method that allows for internal magnetic charges is used in theories of ferromagnetism (see Micromagnetics).

Ampère model

Another model is the André-Marie_Ampère model, where all magnetization is due to the effect of microscopic, or atomic, circular Bound_current, also called Ampèrian currents, throughout the material. For a uniformly magnetized cylindrical bar magnet, the net effect of the microscopic bound currents is to make the magnet behave as if there is a macroscopic sheet of Electric_currentflowing around the surface, with local flow direction normal to the cylinder axis. (Since scraping off the outer layer of a magnet will not destroy its magnetic field, it can be seen that this is just a model, and the tiny currents are actually distributed throughout the material). The Right-hand_ruletells which direction the current flows. It is usually difficult to calculate the Ampèrian currents on the surface of a magnet, whereas it is often easier to find the effective poles for the same magnet.

Pole naming conventionsThe north pole of a magnet is the pole that, when the magnet is freely suspended, points towards the Earth's North_Magnetic_Polewhich is located in northern Canada. Since opposite poles (north and south) attract, the Earth's "North Magnetic Pole" is thus actually the south pole of the Earth's magnetic field.Answers.comAnswers.comAnswers.comAnswers.comAs a practical matter, in order to tell which Poleof a magnet is north and which is south, it is not necessary to use the Earth's magnetic field at all. For example, one method would be to compare it to an Electromagnet, whose poles can be identified by the Right-hand_rule. The magnetic field lines of a magnet are considered by convention to emerge from the magnet's north pole and reenter at the south pole.Answers.comMagnetic materialsMain article: Magnetism

The term magnet is typically reserved for objects that produce their own persistent magnetic field even in the absence of an applied magnetic field. Only certain classes of materials can do this. Most materials, however, produce a magnetic field in response to an applied magnetic field; a phenomenon known as magnetism. There are several types of magnetism, and all materials exhibit at least one of them.

The overall magnetic behavior of a material can vary widely, depending on the structure of the material, particularly on its Electron_configuration. Several forms of magnetic behavior have been observed in different materials, including:

• Ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials are the ones normally thought of as magnetic; they are attracted to a magnet strongly enough that the attraction can be felt. These materials are the only ones that can retain magnetization and become magnets; a common example is a traditional Refrigerator_magnet. Ferrimagnetic materials, which include Ferrite_(magnet) and the oldest magnetic materials Magnetiteand Lodestone, are similar to but weaker than ferromagnetics. The difference between ferro- and ferrimagnetic materials is related to their microscopic structure, as explained in Magnetism.

• Paramagneticsubstances, such as Platinum, Aluminium, and Oxygen, are weakly attracted to a magnet. This attraction is hundreds of thousands of times weaker than that of ferromagnetic materials, so it can only be detected by using sensitive instruments or using extremely strong magnets. Magnetic Ferrofluid, although they are made of tiny ferromagnetic particles suspended in liquid, are sometimes considered paramagnetic since they cannot be magnetized.

• Diamagneticmeans repelled by both poles. Compared to paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances, diamagnetic substances, such as Carbon, Copper, Water, and Plastic, are even more weakly repelled by a magnet. The permeability of diamagnetic materials is less than the Vacuum_permeability. All substances not possessing one of the other types of magnetism are diamagnetic; this includes most substances. Although force on a diamagnetic object from an ordinary magnet is far too weak to be felt, using extremely strong Superconducting_magnet, diamagnetic objects such as pieces of Leadand even miceAnswers.comcan be Diamagnetic_levitation, so they float in mid-air. Superconductorsrepel magnetic fields from their interior and are strongly diamagnetic.

There are various other types of magnetism, such as Spin_glass, Superparamagnetism, Superdiamagnetism, and Metamagnetism.

Common uses of magnetsFile:Hard_disk.jpgFile:Hard_disk.jpg

Hard_disksrecord data on a thin magnetic coating.

• Magnetic recording media: VHStapes contain a reel of Magnetic_tape. The information that makes up the video and sound is encoded on the magnetic coating on the tape. Common Compact_audio_cassettealso rely on magnetic tape. Similarly, in computers, Floppy_diskand Hard_diskrecord data on a thin magnetic coating.Answers.com
• Credit_card, Debit_card, and Automatic_Teller_Machinecards: All of these cards have a magnetic strip on one side. This strip encodes the information to contact an individual's financial institution and connect with their account(s).Answers.com
• Common Televisionand Computer_monitor: TV and computer screens containing a Cathode_ray_tubeemploy an electromagnet to guide electrons to the screen.Answers.comPlasma_screenand LCDuse different technologies.
• Loudspeakerand Microphone: Most speakers employ a permanent magnet and a current-carrying coil to convert electric energy (the signal) into mechanical energy (movement that creates the sound). The Coilis wrapped around a Bobbinattached to the speaker Diaphragm_(acoustics) and carries the signal as changing current that interacts with the field of the permanent magnet. The Voice_coilfeels a magnetic force and in response, moves the cone and pressurizes the neighboring air, thus generating Sound. Dynamic microphones employ the same concept, but in reverse. A microphone has a diaphragm or membrane attached to a coil of wire. The coil rests inside a specially shaped magnet. When sound vibrates the membrane, the coil is vibrated as well. As the coil moves through the magnetic field, a voltage is Faraday's_law_of_inductionacross the coil. This voltage drives a current in the wire that is characteristic of the original sound.

File:Magnetic_separator_hg.jpgFile:Magnetic_separator_hg.jpg

Magnetic hand separator for heavy minerals

• Electric_motorand Electrical_generator: Some electric motors rely upon a combination of an electromagnet and a permanent magnet, and, much like loudspeakers, they convert electric energy into mechanical energy. A generator is the reverse: it converts mechanical energy into electric energy by moving a conductor through a magnetic field.
• Medicine: Hospitals use Magnetic_resonance_imagingto spot problems in a patient's organs without invasive surgery.
• Chuck_(engineering) are used in the Metalworkingfield to hold objects. Magnets are also used in other types of fastening devices, such as the Magnetic_base, the Magnetic_clampand the Refrigerator_magnet.
• Compass: A compass (or mariner's compass) is a magnetized pointer free to align itself with a magnetic field, most commonly Earth's_magnetic_field.
• Art: Vinyl magnet sheets may be attached to paintings, photographs, and other ornamental articles, allowing them to be attached to refrigerators and other metal surfaces. Objects and paint can be applied directly to the magnet surface to create collage pieces of art. Magnetic art is portable, inexpensive and easy to create. Vinyl magnetic art is not for the refrigerator anymore. Colorful metal magnetic boards, strips, doors, microwave ovens, dishwashers, cars, metal I beams, and any metal surface can be receptive of magnetic vinyl art. Being a relatively new media for art, the creative uses for this material is just beginning.
• Scienceprojects: Many topic questions are based on magnets. For example: how is the strength of a magnet affected by glass, plastic, and cardboard?

File:M_tic.jpgFile:M_tic.jpg

Magnets have many uses in Toys. M-tic uses magnetic rods connected to metal spheres for Construction. Note the geodesic pyramid.

• Toy: Given their ability to counteract the force of gravity at close range, magnets are often employed in children's toys, such as the Magnet_Space_Wheeland Levitron, to amusing effect.
• Magnets can be used to make jewellery. Necklaces and bracelets can have a magnetic clasp, or may be constructed entirely from a linked series of magnets and ferrous beads.
• Magnets can pick up magnetic items (iron nails, staples, tacks, paper clips) that are either too small, too hard to reach, or too thin for fingers to hold. Some screwdrivers are magnetized for this purpose.
• Magnets can be used in scrap and salvage operations to separate magnetic metals (iron, steel, and nickel) from non-magnetic metals (aluminium, non-ferrous alloys, etc.). The same idea can be used in the so-called "magnet test", in which an auto body is inspected with a magnet to detect areas repaired using fiberglass or plastic putty.
• Magnetic levitation transport, or Maglev_(transport), is a form of transportation that suspends, guides and propels vehicles (especially trains) through electromagnetic force. The maximum recorded speed of a maglev train is 581 kilometers per hour (361 mph).
• Magnets may be used to serve as a Fail-safedevice for some cable connections. For example, the power cords of some laptops are magnetic to prevent accidental damage to the port when tripped over. The MagSafepower connection to the Apple MacBook is one such example.

Medical issues and safetyBecause human tissues have a very low level of susceptibility to static magnetic fields, there is little mainstream scientific evidence showing a health hazard associated with exposure to static fields. Dynamic magnetic fields may be a different issue, however; correlations between electromagnetic radiation and cancer rates have been postulated due to demographic correlations (see Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health).

If a ferromagnetic foreign body is present in human tissue, an external magnetic field interacting with it can pose a serious safety risk.Answers.com

A different type of indirect magnetic health risk exists involving pacemakers. If a Pacemakerhas been embedded in a patient's chest (usually for the purpose of monitoring and regulating the heart for steady electrically induced Cardiac_cycle), care should be taken to keep it away from magnetic fields. It is for this reason that a patient with the device installed cannot be tested with the use of an MRI, which is a magnetic imaging device.

Children sometimes swallow small magnets from toys, and this can be hazardous if two or more magnets are swallowed, as the magnets can pinch or puncture internal tissues; one death has been reported.Answers.com

Magnetizing ferromagnetsSee also: Remanence

Ferromagneticmaterials can be magnetized in the following ways:

• Heating the object above its Curie_temperature, allowing it to cool in a magnetic field and hammering it as it cools. This is the most effective method and is similar to the industrial processes used to create permanent magnets.
• Placing the item in an external magnetic field will result in the item retaining some of the magnetism on removal. Oscillationhas been shown to increase the effect. Ferrous materials aligned with the Earth's magnetic field that are subject to vibration (e.g., frame of a conveyor) have been shown to acquire significant residual magnetism.
• Stroking: An existing magnet is moved from one end of the item to the other repeatedly in the same direction.

Demagnetizing ferromagnetsMagnetized ferromagnetic materials can be demagnetized (or degaussed) in the following ways:

• Heata magnet past its Curie temperature; the molecular motion destroys the alignment of the magnetic domains. This always removes all magnetization.
• Placing the magnet in an alternating magnetic field with an intensity above the material's coercivity and then either slowly drawing the magnet out or slowly decreasing the magnetic field to zero. This is the principle used in commercial demagnetizers to demagnetize tools and erase credit cards and Hard_diskand Degausserused to demagnetize Cathode_ray_tube.
• Some demagnetization or reverse magnetization will occur if any part of the magnet is subjected to a reverse field above the magnetic material's Coercivity.
• Demagnetisation progressively occurs if the magnet is subjected to cyclic fields sufficient to move the magnet away from the linear part on the second quadrant of the B-H curve of the magnetic material (the demagnetisation curve).
• Hammering or jarring: the mechanical disturbance tends to randomize the magnetic domains. Will leave some residual magnetization.

Types of permanent magnetsFile:Ceramic_magnets.jpgFile:Ceramic_magnets.jpg

A stack of Ferrite_magnets

Magnetic metallic elementsMany materials have unpaired electron spins, and the majority of these materials are Paramagnetic. When the spins interact with each other in such a way that the spins align spontaneously, the materials are called ferromagnetic (what is often loosely termed as magnetic). Because of the way their regular CrystallineAtomic_structurecauses their spins to interact, some Metalare (ferro)magnetic when found in their natural states, as Ore. These include Iron_ore(Magnetiteor Lodestone), Cobaltand Nickel, as well as the rare earth metals Gadoliniumand Dysprosium(when at a very low temperature). Such naturally occurring (ferro)magnets were used in the first experiments with magnetism. Technology has since expanded the availability of magnetic materials to include various man-made products, all based, however, on naturally magnetic elements. CompositesCeramic or ferriteMain article: Ferrite_(magnet)

Ceramic, or ferrite, magnets are made of a SinteredAlloyof powdered iron oxide and barium/strontium carbonate Ceramic. Given the low cost of the materials and manufacturing methods, inexpensive magnets (or non-magnetized ferromagnetic cores, for use in Electronic_componentsuch as Radio_antennas, for example) of various shapes can be easily mass-produced. The resulting magnets are non-corroding but Brittleand must be treated like other ceramics.

AlnicoMain article: Alnico

Alnico magnets are made by Casting_(metalworking) or Sinteringa combination of Aluminium, Nickeland Cobaltwith Ironand small amounts of other elements added to enhance the properties of the magnet. Sintering offers superior mechanical characteristics, whereas casting delivers higher magnetic fields and allows for the design of intricate shapes. Alnico magnets resist corrosion and have physical properties more forgiving than ferrite, but not quite as desirable as a metal. Trade names for alloys in this family include: Alni, Alcomax, Hycomax, Columax, and Ticonal.Answers.com

Injection-molded

Injection_moldingmagnets are a Mixtureof various types of Resinand magnetic powders, allowing parts of complex shapes to be manufactured by injection molding. The physical and magnetic properties of the product depend on the raw materials, but are generally lower in magnetic strength and resemble Plasticin their physical properties.

Flexible

Flexible magnets are similar to injection-molded magnets, using a flexible resin or binder such as Vinyl, and produced in flat strips, shapes or sheets. These magnets are lower in magnetic strength but can be very flexible, depending on the binder used. Flexible magnets can be used in industrial printers.

Rare-earth magnetsMain article: Rare-earth_magnet

Rare earth (Lanthanoid) elements have a partially occupied f Electron_shell(which can accommodate up to 14 electrons). The spin of these electrons can be aligned, resulting in very strong magnetic fields, and therefore, these elements are used in compact high-strength magnets where their higher price is not a concern. The most common types of rare-earth magnets are Samarium-cobalt_magnetand Neodymium_magnetmagnets.

Single-molecule magnets (SMMs) and single-chain magnets (SCMs)In the 1990s, it was discovered that certain molecules containing paramagnetic metal ions are capable of storing a magnetic moment at very low temperatures. These are very different from conventional magnets that store information at a magnetic domain level and theoretically could provide a far denser storage medium than conventional magnets. In this direction, research on monolayers of SMMs is currently under way. Very briefly, the two main attributes of an SMM are:

1. a large ground state spin value (S), which is provided by ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic coupling between the paramagnetic metal centres
2. a negative value of the anisotropy of the zero field splitting (D)

Most SMMs contain manganese but can also be found with vanadium, iron, nickel and cobalt clusters. More recently, it has been found that some chain systems can also display a magnetization that persists for long times at higher temperatures. These systems have been called single-chain magnets.

Nano-structured magnetsSome nano-structured materials exhibit energy Wave, called Magnon, that coalesce into a common ground state in the manner of a Bose-Einstein_condensate.Answers.comAnswers.comCostsThe current[update] cheapest permanent magnets, allowing for field strengths, are flexible and ceramic magnets, but these are also among the weakest types. The ferrite magnets are mainly low-cost magnets since they are made from cheap raw materials- iron oxide and Ba- or Sr-carbonate. However, a new low cost magnet- Mn-Al alloy has been developed and is now dominating the low-cost magnets field. It has a higher saturation magnetization than the ferrite magnets. It also has more favorable temperature coefficients, although it can be thermally unstable. Neodymium_magnetmagnets are among the strongest. These cost more per kilogram than most other magnetic materials but, owing to their intense field, are smaller and cheaper in many applications.Answers.comTemperatureTemperature sensitivity varies, but when a magnet is heated to a temperature known as the Curie_point, it loses all of its magnetism, even after cooling below that temperature. The magnets can often be remagnetized, however.

Additionally, some magnets are brittle and can fracture at high temperatures.

The maximum usable temperature is highest for alnico magnets at over 540 °C (1,000 °F), around 300 °C (570 °F) for ferrite and SmCo, about 140 °C (280 °F) for NIB and lower for flexible ceramics, but the exact numbers depend on the grade of material.

ElectromagnetsMain article: Electromagnet

An electromagnet, in its simplest form, is a wire that has been coiled into one or more loops, known as a Solenoid. When electric current flows through the wire, a magnetic field is generated. It is concentrated near (and especially inside) the coil, and its field lines are very similar to those of a magnet. The orientation of this effective magnet is determined by the Right_hand_rule. The magnetic moment and the magnetic field of the electromagnet are proportional to the number of loops of wire, to the cross-section of each loop, and to the current passing through the wire.Answers.com

If the coil of wire is wrapped around a material with no special magnetic properties (e.g., cardboard), it will tend to generate a very weak field. However, if it is wrapped around a soft ferromagnetic material, such as an iron nail, then the net field produced can result in a several hundred- to thousandfold increase of field strength.

Uses for electromagnets include Particle_accelerator, Electric_motor, junkyard cranes, and Magnetic_resonance_imagingmachines. Some applications involve configurations more than a simple magnetic dipole; for example, Quadrupole_magnetand Sextupole_magnetare used to Strong_focusingParticle_beam.

Units and calculationsMain article: Magnetostatics

For most engineering applications, MKS (rationalized) or SI(Système International) units are commonly used. Two other sets of units, Gaussian_unitsand CGS, are the same for magnetic properties and are commonly used in physics.

In all units, it is convenient to employ two types of magnetic field, B and H, as well as the MagnetizationM, defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume.

1. The magnetic induction field B is given in SI units of teslas (T). B is the magnetic field whose time variation produces, by Faraday's Law, circulating electric fields (which the power companies sell). B also produces a deflection force on moving charged particles (as in TV tubes). The tesla is equivalent to the magnetic flux (in webers) per unit area (in meters squared), thus giving B the unit of a flux density. In CGS, the unit of B is the gauss (G). One tesla equals 104 G.
2. The magnetic field H is given in SI units of ampere-turns per meter (A-turn/m). The turns appears because when H is produced by a current-carrying wire, its value is proportional to the number of turns of that wire. In CGS, the unit of H is the oersted (Oe). One A-turn/m equals 4π×10−3 Oe.
3. The magnetization M is given in SI units of amperes per meter (A/m). In CGS, the unit of M is the oersted (Oe). One A/m equals 10−3 emu/cm3. A good permanent magnet can have a magnetization as large as a million amperes per meter.
4. In SI units, the relation B = μ0(H + M) holds, where μ0 is the permeability of space, which equals 4π×10−7 T·m/A. In CGS, it is written as B = H + 4πM. (The pole approach gives μ0Hin SI units. A μ0M term in SI must then supplement this μ0H to give the correct field within B, the magnet. It will agree with the field B calculated using Ampèrian currents.]

Materials that are not permanent magnets usually satisfy the relation M = χH in SI, where χ is the (dimensionless) magnetic susceptibility. Most non-magnetic materials have a relatively small χ (on the order of a millionth), but soft magnets can have χ on the order of hundreds or thousands. For materials satisfying M = χH, we can also write B = μ0(1 + χ)H = μ0μrH = μH, where μr = 1 + χ is the (dimensionless) relative permeability and μ =μ0μr is the magnetic permeability. Both hard and soft magnets have a more complex, history-dependent, behavior described by what are called Hysteresis, which give either B vs. H or M vs. H. In CGS, M = χH, but χSI = 4πχCGS, and μ = μr.

Caution: in part because there are not enough Roman and Greek symbols, there is no commonly agreed-upon symbol for magnetic pole strength and magnetic moment. The symbol m has been used for both pole strength (unit A·m, where here the upright m is for meter) and for magnetic moment (unit A·m2). The symbol μ has been used in some texts for magnetic permeability and in other texts for magnetic moment. We will use μ for magnetic permeability and m for magnetic moment. For pole strength, we will employ qm. For a bar magnet of cross-section A with uniform magnetization M along its axis, the pole strength is given by qm = MA, so that Mcan be thought of as a pole strength per unit area.

Fields of a magnetFar away from a magnet, the magnetic field created by that magnet is almost always described (to a good approximation) by a Dipolecharacterized by its total magnetic moment. This is true regardless of the shape of the magnet, so long as the magnetic moment is non-zero. One characteristic of a dipole field is that the strength of the field falls off inversely with the cube of the distance from the magnet's center.

Closer to the magnet, the magnetic field becomes more complicated and more dependent on the detailed shape and magnetization of the magnet. Formally, the field can be expressed as a Multipole_expansion: A dipole field, plus a Quadrupole, plus an octupole field, etc.

At close range, many different fields are possible. For example, for a long, skinny bar magnet with its north pole at one end and south pole at the other, the magnetic field near either end falls off inversely with the square of the distance from that pole.

Calculating the magnetic forceMain article: Force_between_magnetsForce between two magnetic polesFurther information: Magnetic_moment

Classical_mechanics, the force between two magnetic poles is given by:Answers.com

whereF is force (SI unit: Newton_(unit))qm1 and qm2 are the magnitudes of magnetic poles (SI unit: Ampere-meter)μis the Permeability_(electromagnetism) of the intervening medium (SI unit: Tesla_(unit) Meterper Ampere, henry per meter or newton per ampere squared)r is the separation (SI unit: meter).

The pole description is useful to the engineers designing real-world magnets, but real magnets have a pole distribution more complex than a single north and south. Therefore, implementation of the pole idea is not simple. In some cases, one of the more complex formulae given below will be more useful.

Force between two nearby magnetized surfaces of area A

The mechanical force between two nearby magnetized surfaces can be calculated with the following equation. The equation is valid only for cases in which the effect of http://wiki.answers.com/w/index.php?title=Fringing&action=edit&redlink=1is negligible and the volume of the air gap is much smaller than that of the magnetized material:Answers.comAnswers.com

where:A is the area of each surface, in m2H is their magnetizing field, in A/mμ0 is the permeability of space, which equals 4π×10−7 T·m/AB is the flux density, in T.

Force between two bar magnets

The force between two identical cylindrical bar magnets placed end to end is given by:Answers.com

whereB0 is the magnetic flux density very close to each pole, in T,A is the area of each pole, in m2,L is the length of each magnet, in m,R is the radius of each magnet, in m, andx is the separation between the two magnets, in m. relates the flux density at the pole to the magnetization of the magnet.

Note that all these formulations are based on Gilbert's model, which is usable in relatively great distances. In other models (e.g., Ampère's model), a more complicated formulation is used that sometimes cannot be solved analytically. In these cases, Numerical_methodsmust be used.

Force between two cylindrical magnets

For two cylindrical magnets with radius R and height t, with their magnetic dipole aligned, the force can be well approximated (even at distances of the order of t) by,Answers.com

where M is the magnetization of the magnets and xis the distance between them. In disagreement to the statement in the previous section, a measurement of the magnetic flux density very close to the magnet B0 is related to M by the formulaB0 = μ0M

The effective magnetic dipole can be written asm = MV

Where V is the volume of the magnet. For a cylinder, this is V = πR2t.

When t < < x, the point dipole approximation is obtained,

which matches the expression of the force between two magnetic dipoles.