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While a more general measure of the prevalence of tobacco consumption (both smoked and smokeless) would be more ideal, the World Health Organization (WHO) reports "data limitations restrict the present indicator to smoked tobacco".[1] Smoking has therefore been studied more extensively than any other form of consumption.[2]
As of 2000, smoking is practiced by 1.22 billion people. Assuming no change in prevalence it is predicted that 1.45 billion people will smoke in 2010 and 1.5 to 1.9 billion in 2025. Assuming that prevalence will decrease at 1% a year and that there will be a modest increase of income of 2%, it is predicted the number of smokers will stand at 1.3 billion in 2010 and 2025.[3]
Smoking is generally five times higher among men than women,[3] however the gender gap declines with younger age.[4][5] In developed countries smoking rates for men have peaked and have begun to decline, however for women they continue to climb.[6]
As of 2002, about twenty percent of young teens (13–15) smoke worldwide. From which 80,000 to 100,000 children begin smoking every day—roughly half of which live in Asia. Half of those who begin smoking in adolescent years are projected to go on to smoke for 15 to 20 years.[7]
The World Health Organization (WHO) states that "Much of the disease burden and premature mortality attributable to tobacco use disproportionately affect the poor". Of the 1.22 billion smokers, 1 billion of them live in developing or transitional economies. Rates of smoking have leveled off or declined in the developed world.[8] In the developing world, however, tobacco consumption is rising by 3.4% per year as of 2002.[7]
The WHO in 2004 projected 58.8 million deaths to occur globally,[9] from which 5.4 million are tobacco-attributed,[10] and 4.9 million as of 2007.[11] As of 2002, 70% of the deaths are in developing countries.[11]
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The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. |
United States
In 2005, it was estimated that 20.9% (or 45.1 million) of all U.S. adults were current cigarette smokers. Of them, 80.8% (or 36.5 million) smoked every day, and 19.2% (or 8.7 million) smoked some days. The prevalence of current cigarette smoking also varied substantially across population groups. For instance, current smoking was higher among men at 23.9% than women at 18.1%. This is consistent with other countries (see table). Among racial and ethnic groups, American Indians and Alaska Natives had the highest prevalence at 32.0%, followed by non-Hispanic whites at 21.9%, and non-Hispanic blacks at 21.5%. Asians at 13.3%, and Hispanics at 16.2% had the lowest rates.[12]
Smoking prevalence also based on education level, with the highest among adults who had earned a General Educational Development (GED) diploma at 43.2% and those with 9–11 years of education at 32.6%. Prevalence generally decreased with increasing education. Adults aged 18–24 years were at 24.4% and 25–44 years were at 24.1% had the highest prevalences. The prevalence of current smoking was higher among adults living below the poverty line at 29.9% than among among those at or above the poverty line at 20.6%.[12]
In 2005, the CDC set a 2010 target of 12% for current cigarette smoking prevalence. Certain populations had already surpassed these when it was set. This included Hispanic (11.1%) and Asian (6.1%) women, women with undergraduate (9.6%) or graduate (7.4%) degrees, men with undergraduate (11.9%) or graduate (6.9%) degrees, men aged over 65 years (8.9%), and women aged over 65 years (8.3%).[12]
Among current cigarette smokers, an estimated 42.5% had stopped smoking for at least 1 day during the preceding 12 months because they were trying to quit. Among the estimated 42.5% (or 91.8 million) of people who had smoked at least 100 cigarettes during their lifetimes (the question the CDC asked to measure if they were ever smokers or not), 50.8% (or 46.5 million) did not smoke currently. In 2005, prevalence of current cigar smoking was 2.2% and current smokeless tobacco use was 2.3%. Prevalence of cigar smoking and use of smokeless tobacco were higher among men (4.3% and 4.5%, respectively) than women (0.3% and 0.2%).[12]
Smoking rates in the United States have dropped by half from 1965 to 2006 falling from 42% to 20.8% of adults.[13]. There are large regional differences in smoking rates, with Kentucky, West Virginia, Oklahoma and Mississippi topping the list, and Idaho, California and Utah at significantly lower rates.[14] However, declining rate has been offset each year with the addition of about one million new young American smokers. Females are making up a large amount of the American population who are increasing their consumption of tobacco, especially young, teenage girls. The American Tobacco Industry has been little affected by the overall declining rate of tobacco consumption. [15]
Canada
In December 2002, Statistics Canada published a report on smoking prevalence from 1985-2001. In that report they found from 1985 to 1991, prevalence of "current smoking" (which they defined as daily smokers and occasional smokers) declined overall, for both sexes and all age groups except for those aged 15 to 24. Even larger declines occurred from 1991 to 2001. While current smoking prevalence for youths did not significantly change from 1985 to 1994-1995, there was a significant decrease of 6 percentage points from 1994-1995 to 2001 (from 28.5% to 22.5%).Provincially, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, Quebec, Ontario, Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia, experienced most of their declines in current smoking prevalence from 1994-1995 onwards. All of the provinces experienced some level of declines over the entire 1985 to 2001 period. Declines in daily smoking prevalence occurred for both sexes and all age groups over the entire 17-year time span, although youth smoking did not start significantly declining until the mid-1990s. Overall, for daily cigarette consumption, smokers by 2001 had a significantly lower proportion of smoking 26 or more cigarettes daily compared with 1985 (14.0% to 5.8%). Most of the declines in the different sex or age groups occurred after 1991. At the same time however, smokers in 2001 had a significantly higher proportion of smoking 1 to 10 cigarettes daily compared with 1985 (18.6% to 31.1%). Most of the decline occurred after 1991.[16]
Israel
In Israel[17], smoking prevalence among males has remained relatively constant at 30% for the past 10 years (1994-2004).[18] Among females the prevalence has declined slightly from 25% in 1998 to 18% in 2003.[18] For youth, 14% smoked at least once per week in a 2001 publication.[19]
In 2005, research has shown that Israeli youths have begun to use bidis and hookah, as alternative methods of tobacco use.[18] In 1990, smoking was the cause of about 1,800 male deaths in Israel which was around 12% of all male deaths.[20] Smoking has not been found to be significant cause of death among Israeli women.[20] The average number of cigarettes smoked per Israeli stands at 2162 (6).[18]
There are several anti-tobacco use legislations in effect. For instance, advertising is prohibited in youth publications and is forbidden on television and radio.[20] in addition to substantial increases in tobacco taxes, although comparatively the prices are still among the lowest compared to all of the European countries.[20] In addition, there is no minimum age requirement for buying tobacco products in Israel.[21]
Australia
In Australia the incidence of smoking is in decline, with figures from 2004-5 showing 23% of the population to be current smokers, a decline of 2% compared to 1995. Amongst the indigenous population, the rate is much higher, with 51% of men and 49% of women reported being current daily smokers. Young adults are the most likely age group to smoke, with a marked decline in smoking rates with increasing age. The prevalence of smoking is strongly associated with socioeconomic disadvantage, with over double the rate in the most disadvantaged quintile of the population as compared to the least. [22]
Germany
In 2005, 27% of the population admitted to being current smokers. 23% were regular smokers (28% of men and 19% of women,) while 4% smoked irregularly. The highest ratio of regular smokers was in the 20-24 age group: 38% of men and 30% of women.[23] According to a study by University of Bielefeld, the German youth can be described as "European Champions" in smoking as 25% of all 15-year-old males and 27% of 15-year-old females smoke daily.[24]
A 2006 comparative study found that 25.1% of male and 20.6% of female medical students in Göttingen smoke, while in London the ratios were only 10.9% and 9.1%.[25][26]
Germany has the largest number of cigarette vending machines per capita in the world: 800,000 per 82 million people.[27]
Rates
- ! Data were not validated by country focal point in time for publication of this report
- * Current smoking prevalence not validated
- In gray, data is not available
The following is from the table b of WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic.[29] From the initial survey the data is adjusted making it comparable between countries.[30] Because of this, however, it is not for inferring the prevalence within those countries (table a provides for this).[31] It contains 135 "Countries with recent internationally comparable adjusted data", 18 "Countries with national data that are neither recent nor comparable internationally", and 41 "Countries with no data".[32] The data represents smoking any tobacco product at the time of the survey including daily and non-daily smoking; the error is with a 95% confidence interval (CI).[33]
| Country | Male [%] | Error [+/-%] | Female [%] | Error [+/-%] |
|---|---|---|---|---|
 Afghanistan |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Albania |
40.5 | 13.3 | 4 | 3.3 |
 Algeria |
29.9 | 2.5 | 0.3 | 0.2 |
 Andorra |
36.5 | 5.7 | 29.2 | 5.2 |
 Angola |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Antigua and Barbuda |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Argentina |
34.6 | 3.55 | 25.4 | 3.05 |
 Armenia |
55.1 | 7.95 | 3.7 | 2.35 |
 Australia ! |
27.7 | 3.4 | 21.8 | 3.25 |
 Austria |
46.4 | 2.15 | 40.1 | 1.95 |
 Azerbaijan |
no data | no data | 0.9 | 0.55 |
 Bahamas |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Bahrain |
26.1 | 3.75 | 2.9 | 1.7 |
 Bangladesh |
47 | 8.9 | 3.8 | 1.45 |
 Barbados ! |
18.4 | 8.4 | 3 | 1.65 |
 Belarus |
63.7 | 10.35 | 21.1 | 6.2 |
 Belgium |
30.1 | 3.1 | 24.1 | 2.1 |
 Belize |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Benin |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Bhutan |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Bolivia |
34.1 | 7.6 | 29.2 | 3.5 |
 Bosnia and Herzegovina |
49.3 | 6.55 | 35.1 | 6.15 |
 Botswana |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Brazil * |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Brunei |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Bulgaria |
47.5 | 8.25 | 27.8 | 8.1 |
 Burkina Faso |
22 | 1.95 | 11.2 | 1.4 |
 Burundi |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Cambodia |
40.5 | 5.05 | 6.5 | 0.65 |
 Cameroon |
12.6 | 4.15 | 2.2 | 1.8 |
 Canada ! |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Cape Verde |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Central African Republic |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Chad |
16 | 5.05 | 2.6 | 2.1 |
 Chile ! |
42.1 | 8.45 | 33.6 | 5.35 |
 China |
59.5 | 11.8 | 3.7 | 0.65 |
 Colombia |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Comoros |
27.7 | 4 | 13.5 | 3.85 |
 Congo |
12.1 | 4.2 | 1 | 1 |
 Cook Islands |
36.1 | 9.15 | 20 | 6.15 |
 Costa Rica |
26.1 | 4.15 | 7.3 | 1.55 |
 Croatia |
38.9 | 1.8 | 29.1 | 1.15 |
 Cuba |
43.4 | 17.1 | 28.3 | 6.75 |
 Cyprus |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Czech Republic |
36.6 | 6.6 | 25.4 | 7.45 |
 Côte d'Ivoire |
15.4 | 1.7 | 2.4 | 0.6 |
 Democratic Republic of the Congo |
13.5 | 4.75 | 2.6 | 2.2 |
 Denmark |
36.1 | 2 | 30.6 | 1.9 |
 Djibouti |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Dominica |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Dominican Republic |
17.5 | 7.25 | 13.3 | 3.65 |
 Ecuador |
23.9 | 3.15 | 5.8 | 1.15 |
 Egypt |
28.7 | 2.25 | 1.3 | 0.5 |
 El Salvador |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Equatorial Guinea |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Eritrea |
16.9 | 2.6 | 1.2 | 0.65 |
 Estonia |
49.9 | 2.7 | 27.5 | 2.15 |
 Ethiopia |
7.6 | 1.3 | 0.9 | 0.45 |
 Fiji |
23.6 | 4.9 | 5.1 | 1.25 |
 Finland |
31.8 | 2.35 | 24.4 | 2 |
 France |
36.6 | 0.8 | 26.7 | 0.7 |
 Gabon |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Gambia |
29.3 | 2.25 | 2.9 | 0.6 |
 Georgia |
57.1 | 8.7 | 6.3 | 3.85 |
 Germany |
37.4 | 2.55 | 25.8 | 1.55 |
 Ghana |
10.2 | 1.5 | 0.8 | 0.4 |
 Greece |
63.6 | 7.55 | 39.8 | 5.15 |
 Grenada |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Guatemala |
24.5 | 3.95 | 4.1 | 0.95 |
 Guinea |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Guinea-Bissau |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Guyana |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Haiti |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Honduras |
no data | no data | 3.4 | 1.5 |
 Hungary |
45.7 | 7.35 | 33.9 | 9.35 |
 Iceland |
26.1 | 2.45 | 26.6 | 2.4 |
 India |
33.1 | 6.4 | 3.8 | 1.2 |
 Indonesia |
65.9 | 8 | 4.5 | 0.5 |
 Iran |
29.6 | 5.45 | 5.5 | 1.75 |
 Iraq |
25.8 | 4.2 | 2.5 | 1.65 |
 Ireland |
26.5 | 5.15 | 26 | 3.35 |
 Israel |
31.1 | 4.85 | 17.9 | 10.65 |
 Italy |
32.8 | 2.4 | 19.2 | 1.45 |
 Jamaica |
20.8 | 9 | 9.2 | 2.9 |
 Japan |
44.3 | 8.9 | 14.3 | 2.25 |
 Jordan |
62.7 | 9.15 | 9.8 | 5.8 |
 Kazakhstan |
43.2 | 8.25 | 9.7 | 3.35 |
 Kenya |
27.1 | 3.15 | 2.2 | 0.8 |
 Kiribati |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Korea, North |
58.6 | 2.5 | no data | no data |
 Korea, South |
53.3 | 15.8 | 5.7 | 1.1 |
 Kuwait |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Kyrgyzstan |
46.9 | 8.45 | 2.2 | 0.85 |
 Laos |
65 | 8.05 | 15.6 | 1.2 |
 Latvia |
54.4 | 8.75 | 24.1 | 3.2 |
 Lebanon |
29.1 | 4.9 | 7 | 4.25 |
 Lesotho |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Liberia |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Libya |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Lithuania |
45.1 | 7.2 | 20.8 | 2.85 |
 Luxembourg |
39.1 | 3.7 | 30.3 | 2.95 |
 Macedonia |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Madagascar |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Malawi |
23.7 | 2.75 | 6.2 | 1.7 |
 Malaysia |
54.4 | 7.2 | 2.8 | 0.85 |
 Maldives |
44.5 | 8.4 | 11.6 | 3.75 |
 Mali |
19.5 | 1.9 | 2.8 | 0.85 |
 Malta |
32.8 | 4.45 | 24.5 | 3.45 |
 Marshall Islands |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Mauritania |
22.3 | 2.4 | 3.7 | 0.8 |
 Mauritius |
35.7 | 3.8 | 1.1 | 0.5 |
 Mexico |
36.9 | 7.25 | 12.4 | 3.5 |
 Micronesia |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Moldova |
45.8 | 7.35 | 5.8 | 1.65 |
 Monaco |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Mongolia |
45.8 | 13.7 | 6.5 | 1.75 |
 Montenegro |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Morocco |
29.5 | 2.25 | 0.3 | 0.2 |
 Mozambique |
22 | 2.25 | 3.4 | 0.9 |
 Myanmar |
46.5 | 5.9 | 13.6 | 1.3 |
 Namibia ! |
38.6 | 3.9 | 10.9 | 1.5 |
 Nauru |
46.1 | 9.45 | 52.4 | 11.3 |
 Nepal |
34.8 | 6.55 | 26.4 | 8.4 |
 Netherlands |
38.3 | 0.95 | 30.3 | 0.85 |
 New Zealand |
29.7 | 4.1 | 27.5 | 4.35 |
 Nicaragua |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Niger |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Nigeria |
13 | 1.75 | 1.2 | 0.45 |
 Niue |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Norway |
33.6 | 4.55 | 30.4 | 4.05 |
 Oman |
24.7 | 3.8 | 1.3 | 0.9 |
 Pakistan |
35.4 | 6.75 | 6.6 | 2.3 |
 Palau |
38.1 | 10.05 | 9.7 | 4.6 |
 Panama |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Papua New Guinea |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Paraguay |
33 | 3.85 | 14.8 | 2.15 |
 Peru |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Philippines |
42 | 5.25 | 9.8 | 0.9 |
 Poland |
43.9 | 8.7 | 27.2 | 9.05 |
 Portugal |
40.6 | 5.5 | 31 | 4.15 |
 Qatar |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Romania |
40.6 | 6.8 | 24.5 | 7.15 |
 Russia |
70.1 | 11.05 | 26.5 | 7.4 |
 Rwanda |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Saint Kitts and Nevis |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Saint Lucia |
28.9 | 12.1 | 12.1 | 3.9 |
 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Samoa |
58.3 | 12.8 | 23.4 | 6.85 |
 San Marino |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 São Tomé and Príncipe |
23.2 | 12.8 | 10.6 | 11.9 |
 Saudi Arabia ! |
25.6 | 3.75 | 3.6 | 2.15 |
 Senegal |
19.8 | 2.35 | 1.5 | 0.7 |
 Serbia |
42.3 | 4.9 | 42.3 | 4.9 |
 Seychelles ! |
35.2 | 5 | 7 | 2.65 |
 Sierra Leone |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Singapore * |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Slovakia |
41.6 | 7 | 20.1 | 5.75 |
 Slovenia |
31.8 | 6.1 | 21.1 | 4.95 |
 Solomon Islands |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Somalia |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 South Africa |
27.5 | 3.5 | 9.1 | 1.8 |
 Spain |
36.4 | 4.2 | 30.9 | 3.7 |
 Sri Lanka |
30.2 | 5.8 | 2.6 | 0.95 |
 Sudan |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Suriname |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Swaziland |
14.6 | 2.65 | 3.2 | 1.05 |
 Sweden |
19.6 | 1.05 | 24.5 | 1.1 |
 Switzerland |
30.7 | 2.55 | 22.2 | 1.8 |
 Syria |
44 | 26.35 | no data | no data |
 Tanzania |
24.8 | 2.6 | 4.3 | 1.15 |
 Tajikistan |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Thailand |
39.8 | 4.75 | 3.4 | 0.15 |
 Timor-Leste |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Togo |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Tonga |
61.8 | 12.9 | 15.8 | 4.45 |
 Trinidad and Tobago |
36.4 | 14.6 | 7.6 | 2.4 |
 Tunisia |
51 | 2.8 | 1.9 | 0.65 |
 Turkey |
51.6 | 7.55 | 19.2 | 11.35 |
 Turkmenistan |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Tuvalu |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Uganda |
20.9 | 2.55 | 3.2 | 0.85 |
 Ukraine |
63.8 | 10.2 | 22.7 | 6.2 |
 United Arab Emirates ! |
26.1 | 5.15 | 2.6 | 2.05 |
 United Kingdom |
36.7 | 1.15 | 34.7 | 1.05 |
 United States |
26.3 | 3.15 | 21.5 | 3.5 |
 Uruguay |
37.1 | 4.45 | 28 | 4 |
 Uzbekistan |
24.2 | 4.55 | 1.2 | 0.5 |
 Vanuatu |
49.1 | 10.2 | 8.1 | 2.55 |
 Venezuela |
32.5 | 5.85 | 27 | 5.9 |
 Vietnam ! |
45.7 | 6.05 | 2.5 | 0.75 |
| West Bank and Gaza Strip | no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Yemen |
no data | no data | no data | no data |
 Zambia ! |
21.7 | 2.75 | 5 | 1.5 |
 Zimbabwe |
25.5 | 3.2 | 4.4 | 1.35 |
See also
References
- ^ "Prevalence of current tobacco use among adults aged ≥ 15 years (percentage)". World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/whosis/indicators/compendium/2008/2ptu/en/. Retrieved 2009-01-02.
- ^ "Mayo report on addressing the worldwide tobacco epidemic through effective, evidence-based treatment". World Health Organization. pp. 2. http://www.who.int/tobacco/resources/publications/mayo/en/index.html. Retrieved 2009-01-02.
- ^ a b Guindon, G. Emmanuel; Boisclair, David (2003) (PDF), Past, current and future trends in tobacco use, Washington DC: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank, pp. 13–16, http://www1.worldbank.org/tobacco/pdf/Guindon-Past,%20current-%20whole.pdf, retrieved 2009-03-22
- ^ The World Health Organization, and the Institute for Global Tobacco Control, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health (2001). "Women and the Tobacco Epidemic: Challenges for the 21st Century" (PDF). World Health Organization. pp. 5–6. http://www.who.int/tobacco/media/en/WomenMonograph.pdf. Retrieved 2009-01-02.
- ^ "Surgeon General's Report—Women and Smoking". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2001. p. 47. http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/sgr/sgr_2001/sgr_women_chapters.htm. Retrieved 2009-01-03.
- ^ Peto, Richard; Lopez, Alan D; Boreham, Jillian; Thun, Michael (2006) (PDF), Mortality from Smoking in Developed Countries 1950-2000: indirect estimates from national vital statistics, Oxford University Press, p. 9, http://www.ctsu.ox.ac.uk/~tobacco/SMK_All_PAGES.pdf, retrieved 2009-03-22
- ^ a b "WHO/WPRO-Smoking Statistics". World Health Organization Regional Office for the Western Pacific. 2002-05-28. http://www.wpro.who.int/media_centre/fact_sheets/fs_20020528.htm. Retrieved 2009-01-01.
- ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2009). "Cigarette smoking among adults and trends in smoking cessation - United States, 2008" (Full free text). MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report 58 (44): 1227–32. PMID 19910909. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5844a2.htm.
- ^ GBD 2008, p. 8
- ^ GBD 2008, p. 23
- ^ a b "WHO/WPRO-Tobacco Fact sheet". World Health Organization Regional Office for the Western Pacific. 2007-05-29. http://www.wpro.who.int/media_centre/fact_sheets/fs_20070529.htm. Retrieved 2009-01-01.
- ^ a b c d Tobacco Use Among Adults: United States, 2005, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, October 27, 2006
- ^ "Cigarette smoking among adults—United States, 2006". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 56 (44): 1157–61. November 2007. PMID 17989644. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5644a2.htm. "Figure: Estimated percentage of persons ≥ 18 years who were current smokers, by sex".
- ^ "State-specific prevalence of cigarette smoking among adults and quitting among persons aged 18-35 years—United States, 2006". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 56 (38): 993–6. September 2007. PMID 17898692. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5638a2.htm.
- ^ Nichter, M., and E. Cartwright. 1991 Saving the children for the tobacco industry. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 5 (3):236-256.
- ^ Report on Smoking in Canada 1985 to 2001, Statistics Canada, Health Statistics Division, December 2002
- ^ Tobacco Use Introduction for Israel, World Health Organization
- ^ a b c d Baron-Epel O. Haviv-Messika A. Tamir D. Nitzan-Kaluski D. Green M. Multiethnic differences in smoking in Israel: pooled analysis from three national surveys. European Journal of Public Health. 14(4):384-9, 2004 Dec.
- ^ Meijer B. Branski D. Kerem E. Ethnic differences in cigarette smoking among adolescents: a comparison of Jews and Arabs in Jerusalem. Israel Medical Association Journal: Imaj. 3(7):504-7, 2001 Jul.
- ^ a b c d or Health: A Global Status Report, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), accessed July 13, 2005 (site now down)
- ^ WHO European Country Profiles on Tobacco Control 2003, World Health Organization, accessed November 24 2005
- ^ Tobacco Smoking in Australia: A Snapshot, 2004-05
- ^ "Leben in Deutschland. Haushalte, Familien und Gesundheit – Ergebnisse des Mikrozensus 2005". Statistisches Bundesamt. 2005. pp. 61-67. http://www.destatis.de/jetspeed/portal/cms/Sites/destatis/Internet/DE/Presse/pk/2006/Mikrozensus/Pressebroschuere,property=file.pdf. Retrieved 2009-06-04.
- ^ Deutsche Jugendliche „Europameister“ im Rauchen
- ^ Raupach, T; Shahab, Baetzing (2009). "Medical students lack bacic knowledge about smoking: Findings from two European medical schools". Nicotine & Tobacco Research.
- ^ http://www.tabakkontrolle.de/pdf/Newsletter_April_2009.pdf
- ^ Rauchen: Risikofaktor Nummer 1
- ^ WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic 2008, pp.267–288.
- ^ WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic 2008, pp.278–287.
- ^ WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic 2008, p.67.
- ^ WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic 2008, p.287.
- ^ WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic 2008, p.68.
- ^ WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic 2008, p.268–287.
Bibliography
- "The Global Burden of Disease 2004 Update" (PDF). World Health Organization. 2008. http://www.who.int/entity/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/GBD_report_2004update_full.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-01.
- "WHO REPORT on the global TOBACCO epidemic" (PDF). World Health Organization. 2008. http://www.who.int/entity/tobacco/mpower/mpower_report_full_2008.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-01.
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