United States presidential election, 1800

 

< 1796  1804 >
United States presidential election, 1800
1800
	Winner	Runner up
Nominee	Thomas Jefferson	John Adams
Party	Democratic-Republican	Federalist
Home State	Virginia	Massachusetts
Running mate	Aaron Burr	Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, John Jay
	65
States Carried	8	7
Popular Vote	41,330	25,952
Percentage	61.4%	38.6%
Presidential election results map. Green denotes states won by Jefferson, Brown denotes states won by Adams. Numbers indicate the number of electoral votes allotted to each state.
Before Election John Adams Federalist		After Election Thomas Jefferson Democratic-Republican

In the United States presidential election of 1800, sometimes referred to as the “Revolution of 1800”, Thomas Jefferson defeated John Adams. The election ushered in a generation of Democratic-Republican Party rule and the eventual demise of the Federalist Party.

The election exposed one of the flaws in the original Constitution. Members of the Electoral College could only vote for president; the vice president was the person who had the second largest number of votes during the election. The Democratic-Republican plan to have one elector vote for Jefferson and not Aaron Burr was bungled, resulting in a tie in the electoral vote between Jefferson and Burr. The election was then put into the hands of the outgoing Federalist Party House of Representatives. Most Federalists voted for Burr in order to block Jefferson from the presidency, and the result was a week of deadlock. Federalist Alexander Hamilton, who preferred Jefferson to Burr, intervened on Jefferson's behalf, which allowed Jefferson to ascend to the presidency. Hamilton's actions were one cause of his duel with Burr, which resulted in Hamilton's death in 1804.

Jefferson's victory ended America's most acrimonious presidential campaign to date. The Twelfth Amendment, ratified in 1804, was added to the United States Constitution. It required electors to make a distinct choice between their selections for president and vice president.

General election

Campaign

The 1800 election was a rematch of the 1796 election. The campaign was bitter and characterized by slander and personal attacks on both sides. Federalists spread rumors that the Democratic-Republicans were radicals who would murder their opponents, burn churches, and destroy the country (based on the Democratic-Republican preference for France over Britain. At the time, the rather violent French revolution was in full swing). In 1798, Federalist George Washington had complained "that you could as soon scrub the blackamoor white, as to change the principles of a profest[sic] Democrat; and that he will leave nothing unattempted to overturn the Government of this Country.”^[1] Meanwhile, the Democratic-Republicans accused Federalists of destroying republican values with the Alien and Sedition Acts; they also accused Federalists of favoring Britain in order to promote aristocratic, anti-republican values. ^[2]

Adams was attacked by both the opposition Democratic-Republicans and by "High Federalists" in his own Federalist Party who were aligned with Hamilton. The Democratic-Republicans felt that Adams' foreign policy was too favorable toward Britain, feared that the new army called up for the Quasi-War would oppress the people, opposed Adam's new taxes, and attacked his Alien and Sedition Acts as violations of states' rights. A faction of “High Federalists” considered Adams too moderate. Federalist leader Alexander Hamilton schemed to elect vice presidential candidate Charles Cotesworth Pinckney to the presidency. One of Hamilton's letters attacking Adams became public, embarrassing Adams and damaging Hamilton's efforts on behalf of Pinckney.^[3]

Jefferson's platform

Political parties in the 1790s did not issue official platforms as they do today. However, Jefferson issued a major statement in a January 26, 1799 public letter to Elbridge Gerry that was widely reprinted and circulated. It became the political creed for which he was best known in his lifetime.^[4]

I am for free commerce with all nations; political connection with none; & little or no diplomatic establishment. And I am not for linking ourselves by new treaties with the quarrels of Europe; entering that field of slaughter to preserve their balance, or joining in the confederacy of kings to war against the principles of liberty.

I am for freedom of religion, and against all maneuvres to bring about a legal ascendancy of one sect over another: for freedom of the press, & against all violations of the constitution to silence By force & not by reason the complaints or criticisms, just or unjust, of our citizens against the conduct of their agents. And I am for encouraging the progress of science in all it's branches; and not for raising a hue and cry against the sacred name of philosophy; for awing the human mind by stories of raw-head & bloody bones to a distrust of its own vision, & to repose implicitly on that of others; to go backwards instead of forwards to look for improvement; to believe that government, religion, morality, & every other science were in the highest perfection in ages of the darkest ignorance, and that nothing can ever be devised more perfect than what was established by our forefathers. To these I will add, that I was a sincere well-wisher to the success of the French revolution, and still wish it may end in the establishment of a free & well-ordered republic; but I have not been insensible under the atrocious depredations they have committed on our commerce.^[5]

Selection method changes

Partisans on both sides sought any advantage they could find. In several states, this included changing the method of selection to ensure the desired result. In Georgia, Democratic-Republican legislators replaced the popular vote with selection by the state legislature. Federalist legislators did the same in Massachusetts and New Hampshire. (This may have had some unintended consequences in Massachusetts, where the delegation to the federal House of Representatives was changed from 12–2 Federalist to 8–6 Federalist by irate voters.) Pennsylvania also switched to legislative choice, but this resulted in an almost evenly split set of electors. Virginia switched from electoral districts to winner-take-all, a move that probably switched one or two votes from the Federalist column to the Democratic-Republican column.

Voting

Because each state could choose its own election day, voting lasted from April to October. In April, Burr succeeded in reversing the Federalist majority and getting a Democratic-Republican majority in New York's state legislature. With the Federalists and Democratic-Republicans tied 65–65 in the Electoral College, the last state to vote, South Carolina, chose eight Democratic-Republicans, giving the election to Jefferson and Burr.

Under the United States Constitution, each presidential elector cast two votes, without distinction as to which was for president or vice president. The recipient of a majority of votes was elected president, while the vice presidency went to the recipient of the second greatest number of votes. The Federalists therefore had one of their electors vote for John Jay rather than for vice presidential candidate Pinckney. The Democratic-Republicans had a similar plan to have one of their electors cast a vote for another candidate instead of Burr, but, by a misadventure, failed to execute it. As a result, the Democratic-Republican electors each cast their two votes for Jefferson and Burr, giving each of them 73 votes. A contingent election had to be held in the House of Representatives (the old House elected in 1798).^[6]

Disputes

Defective certificates

When the electoral ballots were opened and counted on February 11, 1801, it turned out that the certificate of election from Georgia was defective; while it was clear that the electors had cast their votes for Jefferson and Burr, the certificate did not take the Constitutionally mandated form of a "List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each." Jefferson, who was counting the votes in his role as president of the senate, immediately counted the votes from Georgia as votes for Jefferson and Burr. No objections were raised. The total number of votes for Jefferson and Burr was 73, a majority.

Results

Jefferson and Burr tied for first place, so the election was thrown into the House of Representatives.

Presidential Candidate	Party	Home State	Popular Vote(a), (b), (c)		Electoral Vote
			Count	Percentage
Thomas Jefferson	Democratic-Republican	Virginia	41,330	61.4%	73
Aaron Burr	Democratic-Republican	New York	—	—	73
John Adams	Federalist	Massachusetts	25,952	38.6%	65
Charles Cotesworth Pinckney	Federalist	South Carolina	—	—	64
John Jay	Federalist	New York	—	—	1
Total			67,282	100.0%	276
Needed to win					70

Source (Popular Vote): U.S. President National Vote. Our Campaigns. (February 10, 2006).

Source (Electoral Vote): Electoral College Box Scores 1789–1996. Official website of the National Archives. (July 30, 2005).

^(a) Votes for Federalist electors have been assigned to John Adams and votes for Republican electors have been assigned to Thomas Jefferson.
^(b) Only 6 of the 16 states chose electors by any form of popular vote.
^(c) Those states that did choose electors by popular vote had widely varying restrictions on suffrage via property requirements.

Breakdown by ticket

Presidential Candidate	Running Mate	Electoral Vote
Thomas Jefferson	Aaron Burr	73
John Adams	Charles Cotesworth Pinckney	64
John Adams	John Jay	1

Contingent election

The members of the House of Representatives balloted as states to determine whether Jefferson or Burr would become president. There were sixteen states, and an absolute majority—in this case, nine—were required for victory.

While it was common knowledge that Jefferson was the candidate for president and Burr for vice president, the lame-duck House was controlled by the Federalists, who were loath to vote for Jefferson, their partisan nemesis; Jefferson was the key opponent of Federalists since 1789. Most Federalists voted for Burr, giving Burr six of the eight states controlled by Federalists. The seven states controlled by Democratic-Republicans all voted for Jefferson, and Georgia's lone living Federalist representative also voted for Jefferson, giving Jefferson eight states. Vermont was evenly split, casting a blank ballot. The remaining state, Maryland, had five Federalist representatives to three Democratic-Republicans; one of its Federalist representatives voted for Jefferson, forcing the state delegation to cast a blank ballot.

Over the course of seven days from February 11 to February 17, the House cast a total of 35 ballots, with Jefferson receiving the votes of eight state delegations each time—one short of the necessary majority of nine. During the confusion, Alexander Hamilton said he supported Jefferson because he was “by far not so dangerous a man” as Burr. On Tuesday, February 17, on the 36th ballot, Jefferson was elected. Federalist James A. Bayard of Delaware and his allies in Maryland and Vermont all cast blank ballots, thereby giving Jefferson a majority of ten states to four. ^[7]

Results

	Jefferson	Burr	no result
1st – 35th ballots	8	6	2
36th ballot	10	4	2

In the following table, results for the state delegation are expressed as (<votes for Jefferson>-<votes for Burr>-<abstentions>).

	1st ballot	2nd–35th ballots(a)	36th ballot
Georgia (b)	Jefferson (1-0-0)	Jefferson (1-0-0)	Jefferson (1-0-0)
Kentucky	Jefferson (2-0-0)	Jefferson (2-0-0)	Jefferson (2-0-0)
New Jersey	Jefferson (3-2-0)	Jefferson (3-2-0)	Jefferson (3-2-0)
New York	Jefferson (6-4-0)	Jefferson (6-4-0)	Jefferson (6-4-0)
North Carolina	Jefferson (9-1-0)	Jefferson (6-4-0)	Jefferson (6-4-0)
Pennsylvania	Jefferson (9-4-0)	Jefferson (9-4-0)	Jefferson (9-4-0)
Tennessee	Jefferson (1-0-0)	Jefferson (1-0-0)	Jefferson (1-0-0)
Virginia	Jefferson (16-3-0)	Jefferson (14-5-0)	Jefferson (14-5-0)
Maryland	no result (4-4-0)	no result (4-4-0)	Jefferson (4-0-4)
Vermont	no result (1-1-0)	no result (1-1-0)	Jefferson (1-0-1)
Delaware	Burr (0-1-0)	Burr (0-1-0)	no result (0-0-1)
South Carolina (c)	Burr (0-5-0)	Burr (1-3-0)	no result (0-0-4)
Connecticut	Burr (0-7-0)	Burr (0-7-0)	Burr (0-7-0)
Massachusetts	Burr (3-11-0)	Burr (3-11-0)	Burr (3-11-0)
New Hampshire	Burr (0-4-0)	Burr (0-4-0)	Burr (0-4-0)
Rhode Island	Burr (0-2-0)	Burr (0-2-0)	Burr (0-2-0)

^(a) The votes of the individual representatives is typical and may have fluctuated from ballot to ballot, but the result for each individual state did not change.
^(b) Even though Georgia had two representatives apportioned, one seat was vacant due to the death of James Jones.
^(c) Even though South Carolina had six representatives apportioned, Thomas Sumter was absent due to illness, and Abraham Nott departed for South Carolina between the first and final ballots.

Electoral college selection

Method of choosing Electors	State(s)
state is divided into electoral districts, with one Elector chosen per district by the voters of that district	Kentucky Maryland North Carolina
each Elector chosen by voters statewide	Rhode Island Virginia
state is divided into electoral districts, with one Elector chosen per district each county chooses an electoral delegate by popular vote Elector is chosen by electoral delegates of the counties within their district	Tennessee
each Elector appointed by state legislature	(all other states)

See also

• History of the United States (1789-1849)
• First Party System

Notes

References

• (1834–1856) Annals of the Congress of the United States. Washington, D.C.: Gales and Seaton, 10:1028–1033. 
• A Historical Analysis of the Electoral College. The Green Papers.

Bibliography

• (1999) in Doron Ben-Atar and Barbara B. Oberg, eds.: Federalists Reconsidered. 
• (2004) in Jeffrey L. Pasley, et al., eds.: Beyond the Founders: New Approaches to the Political History of the Early American Republic. 
• Beard, Charles A. (1915). The Economic Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy. 
• Bowling, Kenneth R.; Donald R. Kennon (2005). Establishing Congress : The Removal to Washington, D.C., and the Election of 1800. 
• Buel, Richard (1972). Securing the Revolution: Ideology in American Politics, 1789–1815. 
• Chambers, William Nisbet (1963). Political Parties in a New Nation: The American Experience, 1776–1809. 
• Cunningham, Noble E., Jr. (1965). The Making of the American Party System 1789 to 1809. 
• Dunn, Susan (2004). The Election Crisis of 1800 and the Triumph of Republicanism. 
• Elkins, Stanley; Eric McKitrick (1995). The Age of Federalism. 
• Ferling, John (2004). Adams vs. Jefferson: The Tumultuous Election of 1800. 
• Fischer, David Hackett (1965). The Revolution of American Conservatism: The Federalist Party in the Era of Jeffersonian Democracy. 
• Freeman, Joanne B. (1999). "The election of 1800: a study in the logic of political change". Yale Law Journal 108 (8): 1959-1994. 
• Goodman, Paul (1967). "The First American Party System", in William Nisbet Chambers and Walter Dean Burnham, eds.: The American Party Systems: Stages of Political Development, 56–89. 
• Hofstadter, Richard (1970). The Idea of a Party System. 
• Horn, James P. P.; Jan Ellen Lewis, Peter S. Onuf (2002). The Revolution of 1800: Democracy, Race, and the New Republic. 
• Miller, John C. (1959). Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox. 
• Schachner, Nathan (1961). Aaron Burr: A Biography. 
• Sharp, James Roger (1993). American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis. 

External links

• Documentary Timeline Lesson plans from NEH
• A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787-1825

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