Writing Materials

Both the Bible and archeological finds indicate that many different materials were used for writing in the biblical period. The earliest documents were written on stone (Ex 24:12; Deut 4:13; Jer 17:1), the inscriptions being engraved on large rocks with a hammer and chisel, a stylus (a pointed metal engraving tool) or an iron pen. Many steles inscribed in this way have been found in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Syria (cf Job 19:23-24). Stones might also be plastered with lime and the writing applied with a brush or a pen dipped into ink (cf Deut 27:2-3). Stones could also be chiseled and smoothed, as with the tablets on which the Ten Commandments were written (Ex 31:18), or the famous stele of Mesha, king of Moab.

Tablets for writing on were in use throughout all periods. Very common in Mesopotamia, but also found in the other countries of the ancient Near East were clay tablets (e.g. Ugarit and Ebla). Such tablets are rarely found in the Palestine region (or have badly survived the archaeological record). Examples are known from Hazor, Aphek and Tell el Hesi. Sherds of broken jars, called ostraca, with the writing mostly executed by means of ink and a fine brush, or sometimes a pointed tool, were very common in the Levant. In Egypt and in Palestine wooden tablets were also commonly used (Ezek 37:16), with writing in ink or stylus.

The commonest writing material in Egypt was papyrus. A large number of papyrus documents have also been found in Palestine, but these belong to the Roman and Byzantine periods.

Another material frequently used in the Near East, and especially in Palestine, was parchment. This was made from the skins of animals, mostly sheep. The skins would be tanned, cut into sheets and, when necessary, sewn into scrolls. The writing was again done with pen and ink.

Writing on hard materials such as stone, clay and wood, was done with a stylus (Is 8:1). On softer materials, such as papyrus and parchment, a pen was used. The main writing pigment was ink (Jer 36:18). This was a thick sticky substance, so that the scribe could safely carry it in an inkpot in his belt (Ezek 9:2). To make it ready for writing, water was added. The scribe kept his pens, penknife and inkpot in an inkhorn. Ceramic inkwells of the 1st century A.D. were found at Qumran and Jerusalem.

An educated man was one who could read a book (Is 29:11-12). Sometimes the word "scroll" supplants "book"; implying that it was written on a flexible material that could be conveniently rolled (Jer 36:17-29). Numerous such scrolls were discovered in the caves of Qumran near the Dead Sea. They either belonged to a library of the Essenes or were brought there for hiding following the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70. Fragments of documents are also known from the Judean Desert caves, some of them dating from the time of the Bar Kokhba revolt. The term "letter" is found in the Hebrew only in the later books of the Bible (Neh 2:7-9). The letter could be a written document or a moral message (II Chr 30:6). The NT epistles were presumably written on papyrus with ink (II Cor 3:3; II John vs. 5, 12). See INSCRIPTIONS