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Wuxia

 
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Wuxia or Wǔxiá (traditional Chinese: 武俠; simplified Chinese: 武侠, Mandarin IPA: [ùɕiɑ̌], Hanyu Pinyin: Wǔxiá, Cantonese Pinyin: mou5 hap6: Taiwanese/Hokkien: bu kiap) is a broad genre of Chinese fiction that concerns itself with martial arts adventures set primarily in ancient China. Although traditionally a literary art form, it is now also found in art, comics, films, games, television, theatre, and other media. Wuxia forms a large part of popular culture for most Chinese-speaking communities around the world.

The word "wuxia" is a compound word composed from the words xia (俠, "honorable", "chivalrous"), which is the philosophy of the Chinese knight-errant, and wu (武, "martial", "military"), from the Chinese term wushu (武術, "martial arts" or "kungfu"). A martial artist who follows the code of xia is often referred to as a "swordsman" in works of wuxia, although he may not necessarily wield a sword. He is also sometimes called a xiake (俠客, lit: "follower of xia") or yóuxiá (游俠, "wandering xia").

The heroes in Chinese wuxia do not usually serve a lord, wield military power or belong to the aristocratic class. They are often from the lower social classes in ancient Chinese society. Wuxia heroes are usually bound by a code of martial chivalry, that requires them to right wrongs, especially when the helpless are oppressed. The wuxia hero fought for righteousness, typically, seeking to remove an oppressor, or to bring retribution for past wrong-doing. The Chinese xia traditions are similar to those of the Japanese samurai's bushido, the chivalry of the Western European knights and the gunslingers of America's Westerns.

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Contents

History

Earlier precedents

Wuxia stories have their roots in some early You Xia (游侠, "Chinese knight-errant" or "assassins") stories from 200-300 BC. Some famous stories include those of Jing Ke (荊軻), who attempted to assassinate the King of Qin Ying Zheng, and Zhuan Zhu (專諸), who successfully assassinated King Liao of Wu. In the "Assassins" section (刺客列傳) of Records of the Grand Historian (a.k.a. Shi Ji (史記)), the author Sima Qian outlined a number of notable assassins from the Warring States era who were entrusted with (the usually noble) task of carrying out political assassinations on aristocrats and nobles during that period.

These assassins are known as Ci Ke (刺客, lit: "stabbing guests"). These assassins usually rendered their loyalties and services to feudal lords and nobles in return for rewards such as riches and shelter. As such, they are often compared to the Japanese Ninjas who served their Daimyos. In another section of Shi Ji, "Roaming Xia" (游俠列傳/游侠列传), Sima Qian detailed several embryonic features of Xia culture of his period. This popular phenomena was also documented in other historical records such as the Book of Han (漢書) and the Book of Later Han (後漢書).

Xia Ke stories made a turning point in the Tang Dynasty and returned in the form of Chuan Qi (傳奇, lit: "legendary tales"). Stories from that era such as Nie Yin Niang (聶隱娘), The Kunlun Slave (崑崙奴), Jing Shi San Niang (荆十三娘), Red String (紅線) and The Bearded Warrior (虬髯客) served as prototypes for modern Wuxia stories. They featured fantasies and isolated protagonists, usually loners, who performed daring heroic deeds.

The earliest full-length novel considered to be of the Wuxia genre was the Water Margin (水滸傳), authored by Shi Nai'an during the Ming Dynasty. Some might classify sections of Luo Guanzhong's Romance of the Three Kingdoms (三國演義) as a possible early antecedent. The former criticises the deplorable socio-economic status of the late Northern Song Dynasty whilst the latter is a romanticised historical retelling of the events of the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms Period. The Water Margin's portrayal of outlaws who follow the code of honour played an influential role in the development of Jianghu culture in later centuries. Romance of the Three Kingdoms contained classic close combat descriptions which were later borrowed by Wuxia writers in their works.

Many Wuxia works produced during the Ming and Qing dynasties were lost due to the government's strong crackdown and banning of such works. Wuxia works were deemed responsible for brewing anti-governmental sentiments which gave rise to rebellions during these periods. The ethos of personal freedom and conflict-readiness of these novels were seen as seditious even in times of peace and stability. The departure from mainstream literature also meant that patronage of this genre was limited to the masses and not to the literati, which accounted for the stifling of the development of the Wuxia genre.

Nonetheless, the Wuxia genre remained enormously popular with the common people. Certain full-length novels such as The Strange Cases of Shi Gong (施公案奇聞) and The Romance of the Heroic Daughters and Sons (兒女英雄傳) were cited as the clearest nascent Wuxia novels. Even Justice Bao stories from San Xia Wu Yi (三俠五義, later extended and renamed Qi Xia Wu Yi 七俠五義) and Xiao Wu Yi (小五義) incorporated much of social justice themes of later Wuxia stories.

20th century

The modern Wuxia genre rose to prominence in the early 20th century. The early 20th century and the period from the 1960s-1980s were often regarded as the golden ages of the Wuxia genre.

Wuxia fiction was banned by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) after its rise to power in the People's Republic of China. The ban was lifted in the 1980s with China's liberalisation. During the ban, Wuxia writing continued to prevail only in the 1960s in other Chinese-speaking regions out of the CCP's control, such as the Republic of China (Taiwan) and Hong Kong. Writers such as Liang Yusheng and Louis Cha (Jin Yong) spearheaded the founding of the new Wuxia genre which differed largely from its predecessors. These writers wrote serials for newspapers and magazines, which published their works. They also incorporated several fictional themes such as mystery and romance from other cultures.

In the 1990s, Louis Cha declared the genre as "extinct" (or "dead") as Wuxia stories have declined in popularity. However, Wuxia fiction is facing a resurgence in recent times and is currently evolving into another new dimension of the genre. Writers such as Huang Yi infuse science fiction elements into Wuxia stories to appeal more to the younger generation. Besides, a number of amateur writers have even taken to the Internet to publish their own stories.

Themes, plots and settings

The modern Wuxia stories are basically adventure stories set in ancient China. The plots of Wuxia stories vary from writer to writer, but there are distinct similarities between Wuxia protagonists and characters from the modern Western fantasy genre. The fantasy element is not prerequisite of a Wuxia story and it is possible for a Wuxia story to be realistic. Jin Yong's Swordswoman Riding West on White Horse or The Book and the Sword are examples of possibly realistic Wuxia stories. However, the martial arts element is a definite part of a Wuxia story, as most, if not all, the characters must know some martial arts.

Themes of romance are also strongly featured in several Wuxia stories. The protagonists of most Wuxia stories usually have beautiful maidens to accompany them on their adventures and the story usually concludes like a fairy-tale, where the protagonist and his love interest are married and lived happily ever after. The romance element is key in several of Liang Yusheng's stories, such as Romance of the White Haired Maiden.

A typical Wuxia story's plot features a young male protagonist who experiences a tragedy such as losing his loved ones. He undertakes several trials and tribulations throughout his adventures and learns several forms of martial arts from various pugilists. At the end of the story, the protagonist emerges as a powerful martial artist whom few can equal. He uses his abilities to follow the Code of Xia and offers them chivalrously to mend the ills of the Jianghu. This is typical of most of Jin Yong's stories.

Another common plot features a mature hero protagonist with powerful martial arts abilities with an equally powerful antagonist as his nemesis. The story would gradually meander to a final showdown between the protagonist and his nemesis.

Certain stories also have unique plots, such as those by Gu Long and Huang Yi. Gu Long's stories have an element of mystery and are written like detective stories. The protagonist, who is usually a formidable martial artist and intelligent problem-solver, embarks on a quest to solve a mystery such as a murder case. Huang Yi's stories are blended with science fiction, where a protagonist travels back in time to ancient China where he uses his present-day experience to survive in the past.

The Code of Xia

The code of xia (俠) can be likened to the Anglo-Saxon myth of Robin Hood. The hero of wuxia novels keeps his honor by upholding justice and helping the poor, just as Robin Hood is said to have robbed the rich to help the poor. A typical follower of xia would have considerable martial arts abilities that are used not just for personal gain, but employed to achieve the greater good. However, just as Robin Hood was an outlaw, the swordsman may not necessarily submit to higher authority. When part of a larger group, the code of xia requires the the group to maintain social justice within the best of the group's abilities.

The code of xia is composed of two main virtues. Yi (義), which means "righteousness", and Xin (信), which means "honor". The code also emphasizes the importance of repaying benefactors after having received deeds of grace (恩) or favor from others, as well as seeking vengeance (仇) to bring villains to justice. However, the importance of vengeance is controversial, as a number of wuxia works stress Buddhist ideals, which includes forgiveness, compassion and a prohibition on killing.

In the Jianghu, most pugilists are expected to be loyal to their martial arts teacher or shifu (師父). This gave rise to the formation of several complex trees of teacher-student (master-apprentice) relations as well as the various sects such as Shaolin and Wudang. If there are any disputes between pugilists, they will choose the honorable way of settling their issues through fighting in duels. This is similar to the one-on-one sword duels adopted by Knights in Medieval Europe. Only two pugilists are involved in each duel and they are usually of the same level or status if they belong to any sect.

Skills and abilities

The martial arts in Wuxia stories are based on factual Wushu techniques and other Chinese martial arts. However, the mastery of such skills are highly exaggerated in Wuxia stories to fictitious and superhuman levels of achievement and prowess. For example, ordinary blows such as kicks or punches can have devastating effects on characters in Wuxia fiction, and certain characters who are formidable martial artists can even shoot streams of energy at opponents to knock them down or stun them. The firing of these energy streams and their impacts can even lead to explosions.

The following is a list of skills and abilities a typical pugilist or martial artist in a Wuxia story might possess:

  • Martial arts (Kung Fu) - fighting techniques in a codified sequence called zhaoshi (招式) which are based on actual martial arts techniques.
  • Qinggong (T: 輕功 S: 轻功) - literally means "the ability of lightness". Characters can move swiftly and lightly at superhuman speeds. They can glide on water surfaces, scale high walls and mount trees, making them seem as though they can fly. Qinggong is based on real Chinese martial arts techniques. Some real-life martial artists such as those who practice Baguazhang, train in Qinggong for years by attaching heavy weights onto their legs.[citation needed] However, its use is highly exaggerated in Wuxia stories and wire-fu films in which characters can circumvent gravity and "fly".
  • Nei Jin (內勁) or Nei Li (内力) - the ability to build up and cultivate mystical "inner energy" (Qi) and control it for several purposes. Characters use their inner energy for attack and defense purposes when combined with their martial arts. They may also use this form of energy to heal internal wounds or even purge venom from their bodies after being poisoned, or use it to attain superhuman stamina. In the context of Wuxia stories, this kind of energy is a prerequisite for practice of Qinggong, Dian Xue, dim mak and other superhuman feats of speed and strength. The more Nei Li one has, the better one can perfom those mentioned feats. Nei Li was gained by many years of special breathing and physical exercises, consuming (sometimes accidentally or unknowingly) rare herbs, fruits or other substances of legend that was beneficial, or in some cases by deliberate transference from one to another, such as master to student.
  • Dian Xue (T: 點穴 S: 点穴) - based on real-life martial arts techniques such as dim mak (點脈) and chin na (擒拿). Character use these techniques to kill, paralyze, immobilize or control opponents by attacking their acupressure points (xué 穴) with the bare hand or weapons. A victim may be immobilized for hours after being hit on the acupressure points. Such techniques may be used for healing purposes, when excessive bleeding may be halted when certain acupressure points are pressed. Real-life martial artists do use such techniques in martial arts to paralyze or stun their opponents. Their effectiveness is highly exaggerated in Wuxia stories.

In Wuxia stories, characters attain the above skills and abilities by devoting themselves to diligent study and practice. The instructions to mastering these skills are often found in "manuals" known as mi ji (秘笈). In some stories, specific skills can be learnt by spending several years in seclusion with a master or cloistering together with a group of pugilists.

Jianghu: "The World of Martial Arts"

The Jianghu (江湖) (Cantonese: Gong Woo), which means "rivers and lakes" literally, refers to the world of martial arts.

The Jianghu is a shared world and an alternate universe. It consists of several martial artists and pugilists gathered in the Wulin (武林), who are usually congregated in sects, clans, disciplines and various schools of martial arts. It is also inhabited by others such as "Youxia" (wandering heroes), nobles, thieves, beggars, priests, healers, merchants and craftsmen. The best Wuxia writers draw a vivid picture of the intricate themes of honour, loyalty, love and hatred between the individuals and communities within this milieu.

A common aspect of the Jianghu is the tacit suggestion that the courts of law are dysfunctional. All disputes and differences can only be resolved by use of force, as such, predicating the need for the Code of Xia and acts of chivalry. Law and order within the Jianghu is maintained by the various "orthodox" and "righteous" sects and heroes. Sometimes, these sects may gather to form an alliance against all evils within the Jianghu.

A leader, called the Wulin Meng Zhu (武林盟主), is elected from amongst them to lead the sects to ensure law and order within the Jianghu. The leader is usually someone of great reputation for righteousness and has a high level of mastery in martial arts. In some cases, the protagonist of the story may become the leader by coincidence, while in some other cases such as in the TV miniseries Paradise, the position of the leader is hereditary. The leader is an arbiter who presides and adjudicates over all inequities and disputes. The leader is a de jure chief justice of the affairs of the Jianghu.

The term Jianghu is linked to cultures other than those pertaining to martial arts in Wuxia stories only. It is also applied to societies where there is no law and order. For instance, the Chinese Triads, secret societies and gangs use the term "Jianghu" to describe their world of organised crime. Sometimes, the term "Jianghu" may be replaced by the term "underworld", with reference to the "criminal underworld".

In modern day terminology, Jianghu may mean any circle of interest such as show business, sports, etc. Colloquially, retirement is also referred to as "leaving the Jianghu" (退出江湖). In Wuxia stories, when a reputable pugilist decides to retire from the Jianghu, he will do so in a ceremony known as "washing hands in the golden basin" (金盆洗手). He washes his hands in the golden basin filled with water, signifying that he will no longer be involved in the affairs of the Jianghu. When a reclusive pugilist who had apparently retired from the Jianghu reappears, his reappearance is described as "re-entering the Jianghu" (重出江湖).

Books and Writers

Wuxia stories have become a new genre of writing within Chinese society and have since remained popular in several countries with significant Chinese-speaking communities such as Taiwan, Singapore and Malaysia.

The more notable modern Wuxia writers are as follows (classified by region):

  • Mainland China
    • Liang Yusheng (梁羽生) - the pioneer of the new Wuxia genre. He has written a total of 33 Wuxia stories and a number of them have been adapted in films and TV series as well. His most famous works include: Seven Swords of Mount Heaven, Ping Zong Xia Ying Lu, Romance of the White Haired Maiden.
    • Wang Dulu (王度盧) - one of the "Four Great Authors of the Northern School". He is best known for his novel Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon which was adapted into a 2000 film of the same name directed by Ang Lee. He has written a total of 30 novels.
    • Sima Ling (司馬翎)
    • Huan Zhu Lou Zhu (還珠樓主) - a writer of supernatural fantasy stories blended with Wuxia elements. His most famous work was the Shu Shan Jian Xia Zhuan Series which was later adapted into Zu Warriors from the Magic Mountain and The Legend of Zu.
    • Zhuge Qingyun (諸葛青雲)
    • Wolong Sheng (臥龍生) - one of the more popular writers before the emergence of Jin Yong and Gu Long. He has written over 30 novels within 2 decades.
    • Ping Jiang Bu Xiao Sheng (平江不肖生) - the author of Jiang Hu Qi Xia Zhuan which was later adapted into the film The Burning of the Red Lotus Temple.
    • Shi Weihan (時未寒) - one of the new writers from the Mainland. His most famous works include: The Ming Jiang Jun Series, Sui Kong Dao, Tou Tian Gong, Huan Ri Jian.
    • Shu Zhiqi (舒志琪) - his most famous works include Lang Zi Jiang Hu, Mei You Shen De Ri Zi. Wu Shan Xing Yun Lu, Chuang Shen Tian Xia, Yi Yu Feng Liu.
    • Cang Yue (滄月) - an amateur Internet writer. He won a Wuxia novel competition with his novel Xue Wei (血薇) during his school days.
    • Xiao Duan (小椴) - an amateur Internet writer.
  • Hong Kong
    • Jin Yong (金庸) - the most accomplished and popular writer to date. He has written a total of 14 Wuxia stories, of which a number have been adapted in films and TV series for numerous times. His most famous works include: The Condor Trilogy, Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils, The Smiling, Proud Wanderer, The Deer and the Cauldron.
    • Ni Kuang (倪匡) - a writer of both Wuxia and science fiction stories. He wrote on behalf of Jin Yong once for sections of Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils while the latter was away. His other famous non-Wuxia works include The Wisely Series which had been adapted into TV series and films.
    • Huang Ying (黃鹰) - rose to prominence after co-authoring the Six Spine-Chilling Stories with Gu Long. He went on to write his famous novels Shen Sheng Yi Chuan Qi and Tian Can Bian.
    • Huang Yi (黃易) - one of the more recent writers. He has a unique style of writing by combining Wuxia with science fiction. His most famous works include: Xun Qin Ji, Da Tang Shuang Long Zhuan.
  • Taiwan
    • Gu Long (古龍) - one of the writers with a unique style of writing of combining Wuxia with other genres such as mystery. He has a stunning number of 69 works, of which several have been adapted into films and TV series. His most famous works include: The Chu Liuxiang Series, The Legendary Twins, The Eleventh Son. The Little Li Flying Dagger Series, The Lu Xiaofeng Series.
    • Ding Qing (丁情) - a student of Gu Long. He co-authored several works with his teacher.
    • Dongfang Yu (東方玉)
    • Yun Zhong Yue (雲中岳)
    • Sun Xiao - one of the more recent writers. His most famous works include Ying Xiong Zhi and Long Qing Tian Xia.
    • Chen Yuhui (陳宇慧) - winner of the "Wuxia Novel Competition 2006" with her novel Duo Qing Lang Zi Chi Qing Xia (多情浪子痴情侠). She is also the director of ABN AMRO in Hong Kong.
  • Other regions
    • Wen Ruian (溫睿安) - one of the more recent Wuxia writers. His most famous works include: Si Da Ming Bu, Bu Yi Shen Xiang, Jing Yan Yi Qiang.

Comics

Although new and original Wuxia writings have dwindled significantly in the last 25 years, particularly so as patronage and readerships of the genre decimated due to the readily available alternatives in entertainment like DVDs, affordable gaming-consoles and so forth, the genre has proliferated in kinds in manhua (Chinese comics) in places like Hong Kong and Taiwan, with the core essentials of the Wuxia living on in weekly editions equivalent of the Japanese manga comic books.

Some notable comic artists and their works as listed as follows:

Films

The earliest Wuxia films date back to the 1920s. Films created by King Hu and Shaw Studio featured sophisticated action choreography using wire and trampoline assisted acrobatics combined with sped up camera techniques. The storylines in the early films were loosely adapted from existing literature.

Cheng Pei-Pei and Wong Yu were two of the biggest stars in the days of Shaw Studio and King Hu. Cantonese screen idol Connie Chan grew up starring in Wuxia films and was famous for her male roles. Jet Li is a more recent star of Wuxia films, having appeared in the Swordsman series and Hero. Yuen Woo Ping is a choreographer who achieved fame by crafting stunning action-sequences in films of the genre. Mainland Chinese director Zhang Yimou's foray into Wuxia films was distinguished by the imaginative use of vivid colours and breathtaking background settings.

Wuxia was introduced to the Hollywood studios in 2000 by Ang Lee's Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon. Following Ang Lee's footsteps, Zhang Yimou made Hero, targeted for the international market, in 2003, and House of Flying Daggers in 2004. American audiences are also being introduced to Wuxia through Asian-television stations in larger cities, which feature well-produced miniseries such as Warriors of the Yang Clan and Paradise, often with English subtitles. With complex, almost soap-opera storylines, lavish sets and costumes, and veteran actors in pivotal roles, these tales can appeal to a variety of audiences.

Significant Wuxia films include:

Video games

References

  • Liu, James J.Y. The Chinese Knight Errant. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1967 (ISBN 0-2264-8688-5)
  • Hamm, John Christopher. Paper Swordsmen: Jin Yong and the modern Chinese martial arts novel. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2005 (ISBN 0-8248-2763-5)
  • (Chinese) 汪涌豪 《中国游侠史》 上海：上海文化出版社，1994 [Wang, Yonghao: "History of Chinese Knight-errantry". Shanghai: Shanghai Wenhua Chubanshe, 1994]

See also

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