Whales are marine mammals of order Cetacea which are neither dolphins—members, in other words, of the families Delphinidae or Platanistoidae—nor porpoises. They include the blue whale, the largest living animal. Orcas, colloquially referred to as "killer whales", and pilot whales have whale in their name but for the purpose of biological classification they are actually dolphins. For centuries whales have been hunted for meat and as a source of valuable raw materials. By the middle of the 20th century, large-scale industrial whaling had left many species seriously endangered.
Origins and taxonomy
All cetaceans, including whales, dolphins and porpoises, are descendants of land-living mammals of the Artiodactyl order (even-toed ungulate animals). Both cetaceans and artiodactyl are now classified under the super-order Cetartiodactyla which includes both whales and hippopotamuses. In fact, whales are the closest living relatives of hippos; they evolved from a common ancestor at around 54 million years ago.[1][2] Whales entered the water roughly 50 million years ago.[3] Cetaceans are divided into two suborders:
- The baleen whales are characterized by baleen, a sieve-like structure in the upper jaw made of keratin, which they use to filter plankton from the water. They are the largest suborder of whale.
- The toothed whales have teeth and prey on fish, squid, or both. An outstanding ability of this group is to sense their surrounding environment through echolocation.
A complete up-to-date taxonomical listing of all cetacean species, including all whales, is maintained at the Cetacea article.
Anatomy
Like all mammals, whales breathe air into lungs, are warm-blooded, feed their young milk from mammary glands, and have some hair, although very little.
The body is fusiform. The forelimbs, also called flippers, are paddle-shaped. The end of the tail holds the fluke, or tail fins, which provide propulsion by vertical movement. Although whales generally do not possess hind limbs, some whales (such as sperm whales and baleen whales) sometimes have rudimentary hind limbs; some even with feet and digits. Most species of whale bear a fin on their backs known as a dorsal fin.
Beneath the skin lies a layer of fat, called blubber. It serves as an energy reservoir and also as insulation. Whales have a four-chambered heart. The neck vertebrae are fused in most whales, which provides stability during swimming at the expense of flexibility. They have a pelvis bone, which is a vestigial structure. Whales breathe through their blowholes, located on the top of the head so the animal can remain submerged. Baleen whales have two; toothed whales have one. The shapes of whales' spouts when exhaling after a dive, when seen from the right angle, differ between species. Whales have a unique respiratory system that lets them stay underwater for long periods of time without taking in oxygen. Some whales, such as the Sperm Whale, can stay underwater for up to two hours holding a single breath. The Blue Whale is the largest known mammal that has ever lived, and the largest living animal, at up to 35 m (105ft) long and 150 tons. Whales generally live for 40–90 years,[citation needed] depending on their species, and on rare occasions can be found to live over a century. Recently a fragment of a lance used by commercial whalers in the 19th century has been found in a bowhead whale caught off Alaska, which showed the whale to be between 115 and 130 years old.[4] Furthermore, a technique for dating age from aspartic acid racemization in the whale eye, combined with a harpoon fragment, indicates an age of 211 years for one male, making bowhead whales the longest lived extant mammal species.[5][6] Whale flukes often can be used as identifying markings, as is the case for humpback whales. This is the method by which the publicized errant Humphrey the whale was identified in three separate sightings.
A toothed whale, like the sperm whale, possess teeth with cementum cells overlying dentine cells. Unlike human teeth which are comprised mostly of enamel on the tooth portion outside of the gum, whale teeth have cementum outside the gum. Only in larger whales does some enamel show where the cementum has been worn away on the tip of the tooth revealing the underlying enamel.[7]
Anatomy of the ear
Whales' ears have specific adaptations to their underwater environment. In humans, the middle ear works as an impedance matcher between the outside air’s low impedance and the cochlear fluid’s high impedance. In aquatic mammals such as whales, however, there is no great difference between the outer and inner environments. Instead of sound passing through outer ear to middle ear, whales receive sound through their lower jaw, where it passes through a low-impedance, fat-filled cavity.[8][9]
Behavior
Whales are widely classed as predators, but their food ranges from microscopic plankton to very large fish. Males are called bulls; females, cows. The young are called calves.
As mammals, whales breathe air and must surface to get oxygen. This is done through a blowhole. Many whales also exhibit other surfacing behaviours such as breaching and tail slapping.
Because of their environment (and unlike many animals), whales are conscious breathers: they decide when to breathe. All mammals sleep, including whales, but they cannot afford to fall into an unconscious state for too long, since they need to be conscious to breathe. It is thought that only one hemisphere of their brains sleeps at a time, so that whales are never completely asleep, but still get the rest they need. This is thought because whales often sleep with only one eye closed.[citation needed]
Whales communicate with each other using lyrical sounds, called whale song. Being so large and powerful, these sounds are also extremely loud (depending on the species); sperm whales have only been heard making clicks, as all toothed whales (Odontoceti) use echolocation and can be heard for many miles. They have been known to generate about 20,000 acoustic watts of sound at 163 decibels.[10]
Females give birth to a single calf. Nursing time is long (more than one year in many species), which is associated with a strong bond between mother and young. In most whales reproductive maturity occurs late, typically at seven to ten years. This mode of reproduction spawns few offspring, but provides each with a high probability of survival in the wild.
The male genitals are retracted into cavities of the body during swimming, so as to be streamlined and reduce drag and to prevent injury. Most whales do not maintain fixed partnerships during mating; in many species the females have several mates each season. At birth newborn are delivered tail-first, minimising the risk of drowning. Whale cows nurse by actively squirting milk the consistency of toothpaste into the mouths of their young preventing loss to the surrounding aquatic environment.[11]
Human effects
Whaling
A
fossil whale bone found at California Beach
World map of International Whaling Commission (IWC) members/non-members(member countries in blue).
World population graph of
Blue Whales (Balaenoptera musculus).
Some species of large whales are listed by various watchdog groups and governments as endangered due to reduced population resulting from commercial whaling. Large whales have been hunted commercially for whale oil, meat, baleen and ambergris (a perfume ingredient from the intestine of sperm whales) since the 1600s.[12] By the middle of the 20th century, whaling left many populations severely depleted.
The International Whaling Commission introduced a six year moratorium on all commercial whaling in 1986, which has been extended to the present day. The moratorium is not absolute, however, and some whaling continues to be practiced under the auspice of research or aboriginal rights; current whaling nations are Norway, Iceland and Japan and the aboriginal communities of Siberia, Alaska and northern Canada. For details, see whaling.
Several species of small whales are caught as bycatch in fisheries for other species. In the tuna fishery in the Eastern Tropical Pacific thousands of dolphins were drowned in purse-seine nets, until measures to prevent this were introduced. Fishing gear and deployment modifications, and eco-labelling (dolphin-safe or dolphin-friendly brands of canned tuna), have contributed to a reduction in the mortality of dolphins by tuna fishing vessels in recent years. In many countries, small whales are still hunted for food, oil, meat or bait.
Sonar interference
Environmentalists have long speculated that some cetaceans, including whales, are endangered by sonar used by advanced navies. In 2003 British and Spanish scientists suggested in Nature that sonar is connected to whale beachings and to signs that the beached whales have experienced decompression sickness.[13] Responses in Nature the following year discounted the explanation.[14]
Mass whale beachings occur in many species, mostly beaked whales that use echolocation systems for deep diving. The frequency and size of beachings around the world, recorded over the last 1,000 years in religious tracts and more recently in scientific surveys, has been used to estimate the changing population size of various whale species by assuming that the proportion of the total whale population beaching in any one year is constant.
Following public concern, the U.S. Defense department was ordered by the US circuit court in California to strictly limit use of its Low Frequency Active Sonar during peacetime. Attempts by the UK-based Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society to obtain a public inquiry into the possible dangers of the Royal Navy's equivalent (the "2087" sonar launched in December 2004) have so far failed. The European Parliament on the other hand has requested that EU members refrain from using the powerful sonar system until an environmental impact study has been carried out.
Other environmental disturbances
Other human activities have been suggested[who?] to adversely impact whale populations, ranging from the unregulated use of fishing gear which catches anything that swims into it, to collisions with ships.
Whales in culture
Whale weather-vane atop the Nantucket Historical Association Whaling Museum displaying a
Sperm Whale.
Whales are frequently portrayed in literature as violent creatures who attack shipping and kill or eat sailors, despite overwhelming scientific evidence to the contrary. This is especially true in literature written prior to the modern scientific study of the creatures, or in period literature. A common whale-themed plot device concerns mariners who are swallowed whole by a whale, and find themselves trapped alive in the creature's belly. In some instances, the victims of these encounters are able to escape, often by causing the whale sufficient gastronomic distress that it is forced to expel them; in other such occurrences in fiction, the victim is doomed.
Portrayals of whales or whaling in literature, film, television, and religion include:
- Whale Wars is a reality television series on Animal Planet that follows the trials and tribulations of the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, an anti-whaling activist group currently fighting against Japanese whaling in the Southern Ocean, aboard the MV Steve Irwin and stars its founder Paul Watson.
- A kenning in Beowulf refers to the sea as the "whale-road."
- Procopius mentions a whale, nicknamed Porphyrio by the Byzantines, who depleted fisheries in the Sea of Marmara.
- Lynn Cox's award-winning literary memoir, Grayson, tells of her teenage encounter with a whale.
- The King James Version of the Bible mentions whales four times: "And God created great whales" (Genesis 1:21); "Am I a sea, or a whale, that thou settest a watch over me? (Job 7:12); "Thou art like a young lion of the nations, and thou art as a whale in the seas (Ezekiel 32:2); and "For as Jonas [sic] was three days and three nights in the whale's belly; so shall the Son of man be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth" (Matthew 12:40).
- Alan Hovhaness wrote a piece for orchestra entitled And God Created Great Whales.
- The poet Heathcote Williams wrote a book-length polemical poem entitled Whale Nation, published in 1988. Packed with detailed research and scores of photographs, it was described by one commentator as, "an epic plea for the future of the whale." The BBC television version was characterized as, "a hymn to the beauty, majesty and intelligence of the largest mammals on earth, as well as a prayer for their protection . . . Whale Nation became the most powerful argument for the newly instigated worldwide ban on whaling, and for a moment, back in 1988, it seemed as if a shameful chapter in human history might finally be drawing to a close." [15]
- In the children's novel The Adventures of Pinocchio and subsequent adaptations, Pinocchio and his father are swallowed by a whale.
- A whaling voyage is the plot of Herman Melville's novel Moby-Dick. In the book, Melville classed whales as "a spouting fish with a horizontal tail", this despite science suggesting otherwise the 18th century. (His narrator acknowledged "the grounds upon which Linnaeus would fain have banished the whales from the waters" but writes that when he presented them to "my friends Simeon Macey and Charley Coffin, of Nantucket ... they united in the opinion that the reasons set forth were altogether insufficient. Charley profanely hinted they were humbug" (Chapter 32).) Melville's book is a classic of American literature: part adventure novel, part metaphysical allegory, and part natural history; it is essentially a summary of 19th century knowledge about the biology, ecology and cultural significance of the whale.
- Some cultures associate some level of divinity with the whale, such as in some places in Ghana and the Vietnamese, who occasionally hold funerals for beached whales, a throwback to Vietnam's ancient sea-based Austro-asiatic culture. The movie Whale Rider follows the trials of a girl named Paikia, who lives in such a culture.
- Festivals celebrating whales have sprung in both Sitka and Kodiak Alaska. They feature speakers on marine biology and celebrate the creatures with art, music, whale watching cruises, and symposia.
- In the British series Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy a whale, alongside a bowl of petunias, is created by the use of the Infinite Improbability Drive.
- In the film Finding Nemo, a whale swallows the characters Marlin and Dory. Unlike other such encounters in film and literature, the whale had not done so with intent to eat them, but was transporting them (in its mouth) to Sydney Harbour. Once there, it assists them in escaping back to the ocean via its blowhole.
- Jacob M. Appel's "Dyads" recounts a woman's extra-martial affair during a whale-watching expedition.
- The Decemberists song "The Mariner's Revenge Song" concerns two sailors (one an older whaling ship captain and the other a young privateer) trapped together in a whale's belly, the latter seeking to kill the other to avenge his mother's death. At the time the privateer was preparing to attack the whaling ship, both ships were attacked and sunk by the whale in question, with all other crew members of both ships being eaten.
- In the National Geographic Channel program "Extraterrestrial", in a moon called Blue Moon, its largest flying creatures are gargantuan whale-like creatures called Skywhales.
- Julian Lennon's film Whaledreamers is about the Mirning tribe of Australia whose culture is centered around the whale.
References
- ^ Northeastern Ohio Universities Colleges of Medicine and Pharmacy. "Whales Descended From Tiny Deer-like Ancestors". ScienceDaily. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/12/071220220241.htm. Retrieved on 2007-12-21.
- ^ Dawkins, Richard (2004). The Ancestor's Tale, A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-00583-8.
- ^ "How whales learned to swim". BBC News. 2002-05-08. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1974869.stm. Retrieved on 2006-08-20.
- ^ "Hunting lance from 1800s found in whale". http://www.news.com.au/dailytelegraph/story/0,22049,21897911-5001028,00.html. Retrieved on 2007-06-14.
- ^ "Bowhead Whales May Be the World's Oldest Mammals". 2008-02-15. http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF15/1529.html. Retrieved on 2008-03-25.
- ^ George, J.C. et al. (1999). "Age and growth estimates of bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) via aspartic acid racemization". Can. J. Zool. 77 (4): 571–580. doi:10.1139/cjz-77-4-571.
- ^ "Common Characteristics of Whale Teeth" here
- ^ "Anatomy of a Whale's Ears". http://instruct1.cit.cornell.edu/courses/bionb424/students2004/kls36/neuroanatomy.htm. Retrieved on 2006-09-14.
- ^ "How is that whale listening?". http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-02/iop-hit020108.php. Retrieved on 2008-02-04.
- ^ "Table of sound decibel levels". http://www.makeitlouder.com/Decibel%20Level%20Chart.txt. Retrieved on 2006-09-14.
- ^ "Milk". Modern Marvels (The History Channel). 2008-01-07. http://www.history.com/minisites/modernmarvels. Season 14.
- ^ http://www.whaling.jp/english/history.html
- ^ "Sonar may cause Whale deaths". BBC News. 2003-10-08. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3173942.stm. Retrieved on 2006-09-14.
- ^ Piantadosi CA, Thalmann ED (2004-04-15). "Pathology: whales, sonar and decompression sickness". Nature 428 (6894): 716–718. PMID 15085881.
- ^ Troubled Waters, London Independent, 20 September 2008
Further reading
- Carwardine, M., Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises, Dorling Kindersley, 2000. ISBN 0-7513-2781-6
- Williams, Heathcote, Whale Nation, New York, Harmony Books, 1988. ISBN 9780517569320
External links
