yoga

1. also Yoga A Hindu discipline aimed at training the consciousness for a state of perfect spiritual insight and tranquillity.
2. A system of exercises practiced as part of this discipline to promote control of the body and mind.

[Hindi, from Sanskrit yogaḥ, union, joining.]

The Hindu school, associated with the school of Samkhya as the practical method for achieving the understanding of the self. Yoga is the discipline (or ‘yoke’) necessary for the pure subject to recognize itself, and separate itself from the empirical reality with which it is confused. Various kinds of involvement with the ego and desires and aversions are responsible for ‘fluctuations of the mind-stuff’ that can only be overcome by training. Yoga includes moral restraints, and spiritual imperatives, as well as the familiar exercises (asanas) designed to withdraw consciousness from the senses, focus the mind, and ultimately achieve meditation in which the self is completely and transparently understood (samadhi).

(Sanskrit, yoking, joining). Any form of spiritual discipline aimed at gaining control over the mind with the ultimate aim of attaining liberation from rebirth. Yogic practices such as bodily postures and breath control are common to many Indian religions, although such practices were only termed ‘yoga’ a little before the time of the Buddha. The Buddha used such techniques primarily as aids to meditation, whereas other teachers emphasized the physical exercises and bodily postures that became known as Haṭha yoga. The process of systematization of these techniques was carried out by the Yoga school, one of the six systems (darśana) of Indian philosophy, and its teachings are codified in the Yoga Sūtra (2nd-3rd century ce) of Patañjali. According to this text, the goal of yoga is ‘the cessation of mental fluctuation’ (cittavṛtti nirodha), and the practical methods it uses to attain this are very similar to early Buddhist techniques of meditation based on breath control.

Definition

The term yoga comes from a Sanskrit word which means yoke or union. Traditionally, yoga is a method joining the individual self with the Divine, Universal Spirit, or Cosmic Consciousness. Physical and mental exercises are designed to help achieve this goal, also called self-transcendence or enlightenment. On the physical level, yoga postures, called asanas, are designed to tone, strengthen, and align the body. These postures are performed to make the spine supple and healthy and to promote blood flow to all the organs, glands, and tissues, keeping all the bodily systems healthy. On the mental level, yoga uses breathing techniques (pranayama) and meditation (dyana) to quiet, clarify, and discipline the mind. However, experts are quick to point out that yoga

is not a religion, but a way of living with health and peace of mind as its aims.

Description

Yoga originated in ancient India and is one of the longest surviving philosophical systems in the world. Some scholars have estimated that yoga is as old as 5,000 years; artifacts detailing yoga postures have been found in India from over 3000 B.C. Yoga masters (yogis) claim that it is a highly developed science of healthy living that has been tested and perfected for all these years. Yoga was first brought to America in the late 1800s when Swami Vivekananda, an Indian teacher and yogi, presented a lecture on meditation in Chicago. Yoga slowly began gaining followers, and flourished during the 1960s when there was a surge of interest in Eastern philosophy. There has since been a vast exchange of yoga knowledge in America, with many students going to India to study and many Indian experts coming here to teach, resulting in the establishment of a wide variety schools. Today, yoga is thriving, and it has become easy to find teachers and practitioners throughout America. A recent Roper poll, commissioned by Yoga Journal, found that 11 million Americans do yoga at least occasionally and 6 million perform it regularly. Yoga stretches are used by physical therapists and professional sports teams, and the benefits of yoga are being touted by movie stars and Fortune 500 executives. Many prestigious schools of medicine have studied and introduced yoga techniques as proven therapies for illness and stress. Some medical schools, like UCLA, even offer yoga classes as part of their physician training program.

Classical yoga is separated into eight limbs, each a part of the complete system for mental, physical and spiritual well-being. Four of the limbs deal with mental and physical exercises designed to bring the mind in tune with the body. The other four deal with different stages of meditation. There are six major types of yoga, all with the same goals of health and harmony but with varying techniques: hatha, raja, karma, bhakti, jnana, and tantra yoga. Hatha yoga is the most commonly practiced branch of yoga in America, and it is a highly developed system of nearly 200 physical postures, movements and breathing techniques designed to tune the body to its optimal health. The yoga philosophy believes the breath to be the most important facet of health, as the breath is the largest source of prana, or life force, and hatha yoga utilizes pranayama, which literally means the science or control of breathing. Hatha yoga was originally developed as a system to make the body strong and healthy enough to enable mental awareness and spiritual enlightenment.

There are several different schools of hatha yoga in America; the two most prevalent ones are Iyengar and ashtanga yoga. Iyengar yoga was founded by B.K.S. Iyengar, who is widely considered as one of the great living innovators of yoga. Iyengar yoga puts strict emphasis on form and alignment, and uses traditional hatha yoga techniques in new manners and sequences. Iyengar yoga can be good for physical therapy because it allows the use of props like straps and blocks to make it easier for some people to get into the yoga postures. Ashtanga yoga can be a more vigorous routine, using a flowing and dance-like sequence of hatha postures to generate body heat, which purifies the body through sweating and deep breathing.

The other types of yoga show some of the remaining ideas which permeate yoga. Raja yoga strives to bring about mental clarity and discipline through meditation, simplicity, and non-attachment to worldly things and desires. Karma yoga emphasizes charity, service to others, non-aggression and non-harming as means to awareness and peace. Bhakti yoga is the path of devotion and love of God, or Universal Spirit. Jnana yoga is the practice and development of knowledge and wisdom. Finally, tantra yoga is the path of self-awareness through religious rituals, including awareness of sexuality as sacred and vital.

A typical hatha yoga routine consists of a sequence of physical poses, or asanas, and the sequence is designed to work all parts of the body, with particular emphasis on making the spine supple and healthy and increasing circulation. Hatha yoga asanas utilize three basic movements: forward bends, backward bends, and twisting motions. Each asana is named for a common thing it resembles, like the sun salutation, cobra, locust, plough, bow, eagle, tree, and the head to knee pose, to name a few. Each pose has steps for entering and exiting it, and each posture requires proper form and alignment. A pose is held for some time, depending on its level of difficulty and one's strength and stamina, and the practitioner is also usually aware of when to inhale and exhale at certain points in each posture, as breathing properly is another fundamental aspect of yoga. Breathing should be deep and through the nose. Mental concentration in each position is also very important, which improves awareness, poise and posture. During a yoga routine there is often a position in which to perform meditation, if deep relaxation is one of the goals of the sequence.

Yoga routines can take anywhere from 20 minutes to two or more hours, with one hour being a good time investment to perform a sequence of postures and a meditation. Some yoga routines, depending on the teacher and school, can be as strenuous as the most difficult workout, and some routines merely stretch and align the body while the breath and heart rate are kept slow and steady. Yoga achieves its best results when it is practiced as a daily discipline, and yoga can be a life-long exercise routine, offering deeper and more challenging positions as a practitioner becomes more adept. The basic positions can increase a person's strength, flexibility and sense of well-being almost immediately, but it can take years to perfect and deepen them, which is an appealing and stimulating aspect of yoga for many.

Yoga is usually best learned from a yoga teacher or physical therapist, but yoga is simple enough that one can learn the basics from good books on the subject, which are plentiful. Yoga classes are generally inexpensive, averaging around 10 dollars per class, and students can learn basic postures in just a few classes. Many YMCAs, colleges, and community health organizations offer beginning yoga classes as well, often for nominal fees. If yoga is part of a physical therapy program, it can be reimbursed by insurance.

— Douglas Dupler

The word ‘yoga’ refers primarily to an ancient Hindu spiritual tradition intended to overcome the narrow sense of individual selfhood, though its usage ranges from the very general to the specific and highly technical. The word is probably derived from the Sanskrit root yuj, which implies a yoke or harness, invoking the notion that when the ox and the cart are connected via the yoke, the resulting complex is greater than the sum of its parts. In its most general sense, yoga involves harnessing or integrating the forces of embodiment (mind, body, and spirit) in order to transcend embodiment.

Sometime around 200 bce, a man named Patanjali developed a system of yoga which ostensibly synthesized previous yogic traditions. It corresponds to a model of the human organism found in the sacred Hindu texts, the Vedas. This model is known as the ‘sheath’ model, and describes the human organism as a series of concentric sheaths or envelopes, all composed of matter of varying degrees of fineness or subtlety. The spectrum of human material ranges from the most crude or dense, to the most absolutely fine or subtle, and therefore the most ‘real.’ The goal of Patanjali's yoga is to identify progressively with the finer aspects of one's being until purification leads to identification with the True Self, residing at the core of the sheaths.

Patanjali's yoga, sometimes called Raja or ‘royal’ or ‘grand’ yoga because of its broadly synthetic ambitions, involves eight steps or stages, of which the first five are considered ‘external’ and the last three ‘internal.’ This relates to the sheath model. In Indian medical theory, for instance, which also bases itself in part on the sheath model, disease always begins from the outside and works its way in, so that even mental illness is a form of physical illness that has progressed to the innermost sheaths. Healing, then, must also begin with the physical and proceed to the spiritual.

These eight steps of the yogic path are meant to be accomplished sequentially. That is, one masters the first, and adds the second. When the second is mastered, the third is added, and so on.

The first five or ‘external’ stages are:

Yama or ‘restraint’

The path begins with self-discipline, or the adoption of a basic moral code of non-karmic or ‘unselfish’ activity. The yogi forsakes stealing, lying, cheating, killing, and other exploitative and self-gratifying behaviours.

Niyama or ‘purity’

Purity involves both hygiene and diet. In terms of hygiene, radical ablutions or cleansing rituals are performed, such as swallowing a length of gauze and pulling it back out again, in order to scour the intestinal tract. Thus hygiene goes beyond the superficial conception of cleanliness which governs ordinary life. Diet is also important, since the outermost sheaths are composed of the food that we eat. Dense foods such as meat are to be avoided, and subtle, refined foods are to be preferred. Also important are the mode of preparation and the sizes and times of meals. Fasting is also an important purity practice, but is seen as a hygienic concern, and not a dietary one.

Asana or ‘postures’

The twisting, bending, and stretching that are commonly associated with the practice of yoga serve a number of purposes. The holding of postures prepares the body to sit for long periods of time in meditation, enables the overcoming of the boredom reflex, and is held to stimulate the endocrine system and thus to be important, since the endocrine system affects our emotions; this stage of yoga begins to affect the emotional as well as the physical sheaths.

Pranayama or ‘breathing exercises’

Prana is the life force which enters the body with the breath and which is metabolized from the foods we eat. Breathing exercises improve the ability of the body to metabolize prana. Also, since breathing affects emotions, breath work helps to regulate and refine the emotional sheath. Finally, breathing also represents a bridge between those physiological functions which we believe we can control (voluntary) and those which we cannot (involuntary). Adept yogis claim to be able to control metabolism, reflex, and brainwave activity — events slow or virtually stop the heartbeat.

Pratyahara or ‘sensory withdrawal’

At this stage, the yogi is able to use the power of concentration to withdraw attention and identification from the outermost, physical, ‘external’ sheaths. This means that sensory input is blocked out or ignored through an effort of will. The only sound one hears is the pounding of the heart, and this explains why a yogi might want to slow or stop the heartbeat, in order to establish true peace and quiet and facilitate inwardness.

The last three, or ‘internal’ stages are:

Dharana or ‘concentration’

Concentration in this sense involves what is described as single-pointedness, that is, the fixation of mind, body, and spirit on a common focal point. Here, the image of the third eye is invoked to suggest the strengthening of spiritual vision to the point where it is capable of sustaining a single object for long periods of time, like an eye staring at an object.

Dhyana or ‘meditation’

Dhyana refers to meditation, or a sense of radical self-awareness. To return to the metaphor of the third eye, once it has been trained to stare unblinkingly at a single object for a long period of time, it then turns inward upon itself, watching itself watch itself. This awareness takes place without judgment or evaluation, and drives a wedge between our experience and our Self. We watch or ‘witness’ our own experience as though it were only virtually real, as though it were a drama or play. We cease to identify with it.

Samadhi or ‘bliss-trance’

This condition is one of complete effacement of individuality. One no longer identifies with one's body or ego; one's actions are selflessly motivated and non-karmic. This virtually guarantees that liberation will occur with death, which will take place once the consequences of past karmic action have been borne.

— Alan Fox

See also breath; Buddhism and the body; third eye.

A philosophical system attributed to the Hindu, Patanjali, who lived in India in about 150 BC In Sanskrit, the word ‘yoga’ means ‘union’. The yoga philosophy is based on developing a mystical union between yourself and a personal deity through a combination of self-hypnosis, meditation, the adoption of special postures (asanas), and ascetic practices. In the West, the meditation and special postures have been adapted as a system of physical exercise and relaxation techniques. The exercises consist of slow stretching movements performed in harmony with breathing. Yoga tones all the muscles, flexes the joints and strengthens the body. Some of the exercises have been incorporated in a new form of aerobic activity called ‘yogacise’.

Definition

The term yoga comes from a Sanskrit word that means yoke or union. Traditionally, yoga is a method joining the individual self with the Divine, Universal Spirit, or Cosmic Consciousness. Physical and mental

exercises are designed to help achieve this goal, also called self-transcendence or enlightenment. On the physical level, yoga postures, called asanas, are designed to tone, strengthen, and align the body. These postures are performed to make the spine supple and healthy and to promote blood flow to all the organs, glands, and tissues, keeping all the bodily systems healthy. On the mental level, yoga uses breathing techniques (pranayama) and meditation (dyana) to quiet, clarify, and discipline the mind. However, experts are quick to point out that yoga is not a religion, but a way of living with health and peace of mind as its aims.

Origins

Yoga originated in ancient India and is one of the longest surviving philosophical systems in the world. Some scholars have estimated that yoga is as old as

5,000 years; artifacts detailing yoga postures have been found in India from over 3000 B.C. Yoga masters (yogis) claim that it is a highly developed science of healthy living that has been tested and perfected for all these years. Yoga was first brought to America in the late 1800s when Swami Vivekananda, an Indian teacher and yogi, presented a lecture on meditation in Chicago. Yoga slowly began gaining followers, and flourished during the 1960s when there was a surge of interest in Eastern philosophy. There has since been a vast exchange of yoga knowledge in America, with many students going to India to study and many Indian experts coming here to teach, resulting in the establishment of a wide variety of schools. Today, yoga is thriving, and it has become easy to find teachers and practitioners throughout America. A recent Roper poll, commissioned by Yoga Journal, found that 11 million Americans do yoga at least occasionally and six million perform it regularly. Yoga stretches are used by physical therapists and professional sports teams, and the benefits of yoga are being touted by movie stars and Fortune 500 executives. Many prestigious schools of medicine have studied and introduced yoga techniques as proven therapies for illness and stress. Some medical schools, like UCLA, even offer yoga classes as part of their physician training program.

Benefits

Yoga has been used to alleviate problems associated with high blood pressure, high cholesterol, migraine headaches, asthma, shallow breathing, backaches, constipation, diabetes, menopause, multiple sclerosis, varicose veins, and many chronic illnesses. It also has been studied and approved for its ability to promote relaxation and reduce stress. On the other hand, some researchers are now questioning claims that yoga is beneficial for such conditions as carpal tunnel syndrome.

As of late 2002, yoga is increasingly recommended for dysmenorrhea, premenstrual syndrome, and other disorders in premenopausal women, in Europe as well as in the United States.

Yoga can also provide the same benefits as any well-designed exercise program, increasing general health and stamina, reducing stress, and improving those conditions brought about by sedentary lifestyles. Yoga has the added advantage of being a low-impact activity that uses only gravity as resistance, which makes it an excellent physical therapy routine; certain yoga postures can be safely used to strengthen and balance all parts of the body. A study published in late 2002 summarized recent findings about the benefits of yoga for the cardiovascular and musculoskeletal systems. The review noted that yoga is still viewed as a "trendy" form of exercise rather than one with documented medical benefits.

Meditation has been much studied and approved for its benefits in reducing stress-related conditions. The landmark book, The Relaxation Response, by Harvard cardiologist Herbert Benson, showed that meditation and breathing techniques for relaxation could have the opposite effect of stress, reducing blood pressure and other indicators. Since then, much research has reiterated the benefits of meditation for stress reduction and general health. Currently, the American Medical Association recommends meditation techniques as a first step before medication for borderline hypertension cases. Some 2002 studies indicate that yogic meditation by itself is effective in lowering serum cholesterol as well as blood pressure.

Modern psychological studies have shown that even slight facial expressions can cause changes in the involuntary nervous system; yoga utilizes the mind/body connection. That is, yoga practice contains the central ideas that physical posture and alignment can influence a person's mood and self-esteem, and also that the mind can be used to shape and heal the body. Yoga practitioners claim that the strengthening of mind/body awareness can bring eventual improvements in all facets of a person's life.

Description

Classical yoga is separated into eight limbs, each a part of the complete system for mental, physical, and spiritual well-being. Four of the limbs deal with mental and physical exercises designed to bring the mind in tune with the body. The other four deal with different stages of meditation. There are six major types of yoga, all with the same goals of health and harmony but with varying techniques: hatha, raja, karma, bhakti, jnana, and tantra yoga. Hatha yoga is the most commonly practiced branch of yoga in America, and it is a highly developed system of nearly 200 physical postures, movements, and breathing techniques designed to tune the body to its optimal health. The yoga philosophy believes the breath to be the most important facet of health, as the breath is the largest source of prana, or life force, and hatha yoga utilizes pranayama, which literally means the science or control of breathing. Hatha yoga was originally developed as a system to make the body strong and healthy enough to enable mental awareness and spiritual enlightenment.

There are several different schools of hatha yoga in America; the two most prevalent ones are Iyengar and ashtanga yoga. Iyengar yoga was founded by B.K.S. Iyengar, who is widely considered as one of the great living innovators of yoga. Iyengar yoga puts strict emphasis on form and alignment, and uses traditional hatha yoga techniques in new manners and sequences. Iyengar yoga can be good for physical therapy because it allows the use of props like straps and blocks to make it easier for some people to get into the yoga postures. Ashtanga yoga can be a more vigorous routine, using a flowing and dance-like sequence of hatha postures to generate body heat, which purifies the body through sweating and deep breathing.

The other types of yoga show some of the remaining ideas that permeate yoga. Raja yoga strives to bring about mental clarity and discipline through meditation, simplicity, and non-attachment to worldly things and desires. Karma yoga emphasizes charity, service to others, non-aggression and non-harming as means to awareness and peace. Bhakti yoga is the path of devotion and love of God, or Universal Spirit. Jnana yoga is the practice and development of knowledge and wisdom. Finally, tantra yoga is the path of self-awareness through religious rituals, including awareness of sexuality as sacred and vital.

A typical hatha yoga routine consists of a sequence of physical poses, or asanas, and the sequence is designed to work all parts of the body, with particular emphasis on making the spine supple and healthy and increasing circulation. Hatha yoga asanas utilize three basic movements: forward bends, backward bends, and twisting motions. Each asana is named for a common thing it resembles, like the sun salutation, cobra, locust, plough, bow, eagle, and tree, to name a few. Each pose has steps for entering and exiting it, and each posture requires proper form and alignment. A pose is held for some time, depending on its level of difficulty and one's strength and stamina, and the practitioner is also usually aware of when to inhale and exhale at certain points in each posture, as breathing properly is another fundamental aspect of yoga. Breathing should be deep and through the nose. Mental concentration in each position is also very important, which improves awareness, poise, and posture. During a yoga routine there is often a position in which to perform meditation, if deep relaxation is one of the goals of the sequence.

Yoga routines can take anywhere from 20 minutes to two or more hours, with one hour being a good time investment to perform a sequence of postures and a meditation. Some yoga routines, depending on the teacher and school, can be as strenuous as the most difficult workout, and some routines merely stretch and align the body while the breath and heart rate are kept slow and steady. Yoga achieves its best results when it is practiced as a daily discipline, and yoga can be a life-long exercise routine, offering deeper and more challenging positions as a practitioner becomes more adept. The basic positions can increase a person's strength, flexibility, and sense of well-being almost immediately, but it can take years to perfect and deepen them, which is an appealing and stimulating aspect of yoga for many.

Yoga is usually best learned from a yoga teacher or physical therapist, but yoga is simple enough that one can learn the basics from good books on the subject, which are plentiful. Yoga classes are generally inexpensive, averaging around 10 dollars per class, and students can learn basic postures in just a few classes. Many YMCAs, colleges, and community health organizations offer beginning yoga classes as well, often for nominal fees. If yoga is part of a physical therapy program, its cost can be reimbursed by insurance.

Preparations

Yoga can be performed by those of any age and condition, although not all poses should be attempted by everyone. Yoga is also a very accessible form of exercise; all that is needed is a flat floor surface large enough to stretch out on, a mat or towel, and enough overhead space to fully raise the arms. It is a good activity for those who cannot go to gyms, who do not like other forms of exercise, or have very busy schedules. Yoga should be done on an empty stomach, and teachers recommend waiting three or more hours after meals. Loose and comfortable clothing should be worn.

Precautions

People with injuries, medical conditions, or spinal problems should consult a doctor before beginning yoga. Those with medical conditions should find a yoga teacher who is familiar with their type of problem and who is willing to give them individual attention. Pregnant women can benefit from yoga, but should always be guided by an experienced teacher. Certain yoga positions should not be performed with a fever, or during menstruation.

Beginners should exercise care and concentration when performing yoga postures, and not try to stretch too much too quickly, as injury could result. Some advanced yoga postures, like the headstand and full lotus position, can be difficult and require strength, flexibility, and gradual preparation, so beginners should get the help of a teacher before attempting them.

Yoga is not a competitive sport; it does not matter how a person does in comparison with others, but how aware and disciplined one becomes with one's own body and limitations. Proper form and alignment should always be maintained during a stretch or posture, and the stretch or posture should be stopped when there is pain, dizziness, or fatigue. The mental component of yoga is just as important as the physical postures. Concentration and awareness of breath should not be neglected. Yoga should be done with an open, gentle, and non-critical mind; when one stretches into a yoga position, it can be thought of as accepting and working on one's limits. Impatience, self-criticism, and comparing oneself to others will not help in this process of self-knowledge. While performing the yoga of breathing (pranayama) and meditation (dyana), it is best to have an experienced teacher, as these powerful techniques can cause dizziness and discomfort when done improperly.

Side Effects

Some people have reported injuries by performing yoga postures without proper form or concentration, or by attempting difficult positions without working up to them gradually or having appropriate supervision. Beginners sometimes report muscle soreness and fatigue after performing yoga, but these side effects diminish with practice.

Research & General Acceptance

Although yoga originated in a culture very different from modern America, it has been accepted and its practice has spread relatively quickly. Many yogis are amazed at how rapidly yoga's popularity has spread in America, considering the legend that it was passed down secretly by handfuls of followers for many centuries.

There can still be found some resistance to yoga, for active and busy Americans sometimes find it hard to believe that an exercise program that requires them to slow down, concentrate, and breathe deeply can be more effective than lifting weights or running. However, ongoing research in top medical schools is showing yoga's effectiveness for overall health and for specific problems, making it an increasingly acceptable health practice.

Training & Certification

Many different schools of yoga have developed in America, and beginners should experiment with them to find the best-suited routine. Hatha yoga schools emphasize classical yoga postures, and raja yoga schools concentrate on mental discipline and meditation techniques. In America, there are no generally accepted standards for the certification of yoga teachers. Some schools certify teachers in a few intensive days and some require years of study before certifying teachers. Beginners should search for teachers who show respect and are careful in their teaching, and should beware of instructors who push them into poses before they are ready.

Resources

Books

Ansari, Mark, and Liz Lark. Yoga for Beginners. New York: Harper, 1999.

Bodian, Stephan, and Georg Feuerstein. Living Yoga. New York: Putnam, 1993.

Carrico, Mara. Yoga Journal's Yoga Basics. New York: Henry Holt, 1997.

Iyengar, B.K.S. Light on Yoga. New York: Schocken, 1975.

Pelletier, Kenneth R., MD. The Best Alternative Medicine, Chapter 10, "Ayurvedic Medicine and Yoga: From Buddha to the Millennium." New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002.

Periodicals

Engebretson, J. "Culture and Complementary Therapies." Complementary Therapies in Nursing and Midwifery 8 (November 2002): 177–184.

Gerritsen, A. A., M. C. de Krom, M. A. Struijs, et al. "Conservative Treatment Options for Carpal Tunnel Syndrome: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials." Journal of Neurology 249 (March 2002): 272–280.

Kronenberg, F., and A. Fugh-Berman. "Complementary and Alternative Medicine for Menopausal Symptoms: A Review of Randomized, Controlled Trials." Annals of Internal Medicine 137 (November 19, 2002): 805–813.

Manocha, R., G. B. Marks, P. Kenchington, et al. "Sahaja Yoga in the Management of Moderate to Severe Asthma: A Randomized Controlled Trial." Thorax 57 (February 2002): 110–115.

Raub, J. A. "Psychophysiologic Effects of Hatha Yoga on Musculoskeletal and Cardiopulmonary Function: A Literature Review." Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 8 (December 2002): 797–812.

Tonini, G. "Dysmenorrhea, Endometriosis and Premenstrual Syndrome." [in Italian] Minerva Pediatrica 54 (December 2002): 525–538.

Vyas, R., and N. Dikshit. "Effect of Meditation on Respiratory System, Cardiovascular System and Lipid Profile." Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 46 (October 2002): 487–491.

Yoga International Magazine. R.R. 1 Box 407, Honesdale, PA 18431. .

Yoga Journal. P.O. Box 469088, Escondido, CA 92046. .

Organizations

American Yoga Association. .

International Association of Yoga Therapists (IAYT). 4150 Tivoli Ave., Los Angeles, CA 90066.

Yoga Research and Education Center (YREC). 2400A County Center Drive, Santa Rosa, CA 95403. (707) 566-0000. .

Other

Yoga Directory. .

Yoga Finder Online. .

[Article by: Douglas Dupler; Rebecca J. Frey, PhD]

Definition

The term "yoga" comes from a Sanskrit word meaning "union." Yoga combines physical exercises, mental meditation, and breathing techniques to strengthen the muscles and relieve stress.

Purpose

Yoga has been practiced for thousands of years as a life philosophy to join the individual self with what practitioners call the Divine, Universal Spirit, or Cosmic Consciousness. However, very few individuals in the United States as of 2004 practiced yoga in this way; rather, yoga is performed as part of an exercise program to increase general health, reduce stress, improve flexibility and muscle strength, and alleviate certain physical symptoms, such as chronic pain. Because yoga is a low-impact activity and can include gentle movements, it is commonly used as part of physical therapy and rehabilitation of injuries.

Clinical and psychological studies have demonstrated that performing yoga has the following benefits:

• Physical postures strengthen and tone muscles, and when performed in rapid succession, can provide cardiovascular conditioning.
• Meditation and deep breathing can reduce stress, thereby lowering blood pressure and inducing relaxation.
• Mind/body awareness can influence mood and self-esteem to improve quality of life.

In addition to exercise and stress reduction, yoga is also used therapeutically to help children and adolescents with medical conditions. Yoga instructors experienced in adapting yoga postures for individuals with special needs teach yoga to children and adolescents with Down syndrome, cerebral palsy, seizure disorders, spinal cord injury, multiple sclerosis, cancer, autism, Asperger's syndrome, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), psychiatric disorders, learning disabilities, and other disabilities to help improve physical and mental functioning. Many physicians may recommend yoga for patients with hypertension, asthma, stress-related disorders, and depression. Growing interest in alternative and complementary medicine has increased the popularity of yoga in the United States and spurred research into its medical benefits. Many hospitals offer alternative or integrative medicine centers that include yoga classes.

Some yoga instructors have even pioneered yoga for infants and toddlers, practiced with one or both parents. Yoga for infants and toddlers can improve sleep, ease digestive problems, facilitate neuromuscular development, strengthen the immune system, deepen parent-child bonds, serve as an outlet for creative play and self-expression, and reduce stress and anxiety for both parents and children.

Description

Yoga originated in ancient India and is considered one of the longest surviving philosophical systems in the world. Some scholars have estimated that yoga is as old as 5,000 years; artifacts detailing yoga postures have been found in India from over 3000 B.C. A recent poll conducted by Yoga Journal found that 11 million Americans do yoga at least occasionally and 6 million perform it regularly.

Hatha yoga is the most commonly practiced branch of yoga in the United States, and it is a highly developed system of nearly 200 physical postures, movements, and breathing techniques. The yoga philosophy maintains that the breath is the most important facet of health, as the breath is the largest source of "prana," or life force, and hatha yoga uses "pranayama," which literally means the science or control of breathing.

A typical hatha yoga routine consists of a sequence of physical poses, called asanas, and the sequence is designed to work all parts of the body, with particular emphasis on making the spine supple and increasing circulation. Each asana is named for a common thing it resembles, like the sun salutation, cobra, locust, plough, bow, eagle, tree, and the head to knee pose, to name a few. Poses named after animals are especially appealing to children, and children's yoga programs focus on those poses that mimic animals and trees. Each pose has steps for entering and exiting it, and each posture requires proper form and alignment. A pose is held for some time, depending on its level of difficulty and one's strength and stamina, and the instructor cues participants when to inhale and exhale at certain points in each posture, as breathing properly is a fundamental aspect of yoga postures. Breathing should be deep and through the nose. Mental concentration in each position is also very important, which improves awareness, poise, and posture. During a yoga routine there is often a position in which to perform meditation, called dyana, if deep relaxation is one of the goals of the sequence.

Yoga routines can take anywhere from 20 minutes to two or more hours, with one hour being a good time investment to perform a sequence of postures and a meditation. For children, 30 minutes may be the maximum span of attention for practicing yoga. Some yoga routines, depending on the teacher and school, can be as strenuous as the most difficult workout, especially those called ashtanga, or power, yoga. Other routines merely stretch and align the body while the breath and heart rate are kept slow and steady. Power yoga is only appropriate for children and adolescents who have practiced yoga for some time, or who are engaged in advanced athletic activities. Yoga achieves its best results when it is practiced as a daily discipline, and yoga can be a life-long exercise routine, offering deeper and more challenging positions as a practitioner becomes more adept. The basic positions can increase a person's strength, flexibility, and sense of well-being almost immediately, but it can take years to perfect and deepen them, which is an appealing and stimulating aspect of yoga for many.

Precautions

Children and adolescents with injuries, medical conditions, or spinal problems should consult a physician before beginning yoga. For children with special needs, parents should find a yoga teacher who is properly trained and experienced and can give children individual attention. Certain yoga positions should not be performed by a person who has a fever or is menstruating.

Children and adolescents who are beginners at yoga should always be properly supervised, since injuries are possible, and some advanced yoga postures, like the headstand and full lotus position, can be difficult and require strength, flexibility, and gradual preparation. Proper form and alignment should always be maintained during a stretch or posture, and the stretch or posture should be stopped if pain, dizziness, or excessive fatigue occurs.

While yoga can be used therapeutically to help alleviate certain symptoms in children with various medical conditions, it is not a cure. A physician should be consulted for standard medical treatment.

Risks

Injuries have been reported when yoga postures were performed without proper form or concentration, or by attempting difficult positions without working up to them gradually or having appropriate supervision. Beginners sometimes report muscle soreness and fatigue after performing yoga, but these side effects diminish with practice.

Parental Concerns

Parents should make sure that the yoga instructor is qualified to teach yoga to children. Yoga instructors experienced in teaching adults may not understand that teaching children requires different skills and methods. Yoga certifications and/or training in teaching children are available.

Yoga classes for children, adolescents, and teens are held at local schools, community centers, fitness clubs, and YMCAs. In addition, yoga videos for children are available online at www.collagevideo.com. For children who want to perform yoga at home, parental supervision is necessary.

Resources

Books

Caldwell, Micheala, et al. The Girls' Yoga Book: Stretch Your Body, Open Your Mind, and Have Fun. Berkeley, CA: Maple Tree Press, 2005.

Hall, Doriel. Yoga for New Mothers: Getting Your Body and Mind Back in Shape the Natural Way after Birth. New York: Anness, 2005.

Iyengar, B. K. S. Yoga: The Path to Holistic Health. London: Korling Kindersley Limited, 2001.

Periodicals

Cohen, L., et al. "Psychological Adjustment and Sleep Quality in a Randomized Trial of the Effects of a Tibetan Yoga Intervention in Patients with Lymphoma." Cancer 100 (May 15, 2004): 2253–2260.

Cooper, S., et al. "Effect of Two Breathing Exercises (Buteyko and Pranayama) on Asthma: A Randomized Controlled Trial." Thorax 58 (August 2003): 674–79.

Leschin-Hoar, C. "Seeking Yoga's Soothing Touch: Many Say Children with Medical Issues Benefit from its Use." Boston Globe November 20, 2003.

Oken, B. S., et al. "Randomized Controlled Trial of Yoga and Exercise in Multiple Sclerosis." Neurology 62 (June 8, 2004): 2058–2064.

Raub, J. A. "Psychophysiologic Effects of Hatha Yoga on Musculoskeletal and Cardiopulmonary Function: A Literature Review." Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 8 (December 2002): 797–812.

Organizations

American Yoga Association. Web site: www.americanyogaassociation.org.

International Association of Yoga Therapists (IAYT). Web site: www.iayt.org.

Web Sites

Itsy Bitsy Yoga. Benefits of Yoga for Babies and Toddlers. Available online at www.itsybitsyyoga.com/babyandtoddleryogabenefits.htm (accessed November 15, 2004).

Lipson, E. "Yoga Works! Medical Science Is Finally Validating What Yogis Have Known for Thousands of Years." Yoga Journal, Winter 1999–2000. Available online at www.yogajournal.com/health/115.cfm (accessed November 15, 2004).

Orkin, Lisa. "Yoga Helps Kids Find Balance in Their Lives." The Yoga Site: The Online Yoga Resource Center, August 2004. Available online at www.yogasite.com/yoga%20kids.htm (accessed November 15, 2004).

Sumar, Sonia. "Yoga for the Special Child," August 2004. Available online at www.specialyoga.com/ (accessed November 15, 2004).

"Yoga." Nemours Foundation: TeensHealth, August 2001. Available online at www.kidshealth.org/teen/food_fitness/exercise/yoga.html (accessed November 15, 2004).

[Article by: Jennifer E. Sisk, MA]

For more information on Yoga, visit Britannica.com.

The term yoga is derived from the Sanskrit for “joining” or “yoking.” As a discipline, it takes many forms leading to extreme focusing of one's physical and mental powers and to consciousness raising and liberation (see Mokṣa) from saṃsāra (see Saṃsāra) or—ultimately and ideally—to a “joining” with Brahman (see Brahman). Yoga seems likely to have been practiced long before the Vedic period (see Vedic entries). There is archeological evidence suggesting its sources, or at least its presence, in Indus Valley civilization (see Indus Valley Mythology), where the practice was perhaps associated with the deity who became Rudra-Śiva (see Rudra, Śiva), himself known as the greatest of yogis. A yogi, or yogin is one who practices yoga or who, in a more general sense, is a Hindu (see Hinduism) ascetic. A successful yogi is expected to achieve mental control by way of various types of disciplined movement and breathing. The third century CE Yoga Sūtra established yoga as a bona fide Hindu philosophical system, developing ideas originally found in the ṛg Veda (see ṛg Veda) and the Upaniṣads (see Upaniṣads). In the Bhagavadgītā (see Bhagavadgītā), Kṛṣṇa (see Kṛṣṇa) becomes the object of meditation for the yogi. The clear implication here is that yoga can be a form of devotion (see Bhakti), or worship.

General term for various spiritual disciplines in Hinduism. The word "yoga" implies "yoking" (as with oxen to the ox-cart) or "union," expressing the linking of man with divine reality. This union is a transcendental experience beyond the plane of words and ideas and has to be achieved by release from the limiting fields of physical, emotional, mental, and intellectual experience. This requires purification at all levels and according to Hindu belief might take many lifetimes, but sincere exertions in one birth should bear fruit in the next.

Yoga's widespread introduction to the West is thought to have begun with Swami Vivekananda's yoga presentation at the Parliament of Religions in Chicago, 1893. Influential twentieth century yogis since then have included Ramana Maharshi, Indra Devi, Selvarajan Yesudian, Swami Sivananda, Sri Yogendra, and Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, of the Transcendental Meditation movement. In the 1960s and 1970s, Richard Hittleman and Lilias Folan (of Lilias, Yoga, and You) brought yoga to the American mainstream through television. Yoga's popularity is also due to endorsements from celebrities such as Sting and Madonna. Yoga's allure as a stress reliever has also helped the practice to gain popularity with Americans who try to regain control over their hectic lifestyles. It is estimated that more than two million people throughout the world practice some discipline of yoga.

The existence of many spiritual disciplines and practices in India allowed for a multitude of forms and beliefs. Most religious systems are aligned to one or more forms of yoga, though most commonly they will emphasize one of the traditional spiritual paths. Some would judge the adoption of a particular spiritual path to be linked to age, occupation, personality, or a particular interest in life.

The six principle branches of yoga are:

Bhakti Yoga

Bhakti yoga is the path of love and devotion. An individual with an emotional temperament can transform those emotions, to be absorbed in spiritual service instead of being attached to physical or sensory gratification. Love can be centered on a familiar form of God, a great saint, or some great task in life. In bhakti yoga, the whole universe, whether animate or inanimate, is seen as permeated by divinity. Bhakti (meaning loving devotion) is the practice of self-surrender for the purpose of identifying with the source of love, the higher self.

The Hare Krishna, which became notable in the West in the last generation, follow a form of Hinduism that emphasizes this type of yoga.

Hatha Yoga

Hatha yoga is known as the path of inner power. It is the science of physical exercises most familiar to Westerners. In hatha yoga the mind, body, and spirit are linked, and the purification of the body is intended to enhance mental and spiritual development, balance, and harmony. Good physical health, however, is an essential prerequisite to the strenuous disciplines of this yoga system.

Hatha yoga consists of a number of asanas, or physical postures, that develop flexibility in associated muscle groups throughout the body, and favorably affect the tone of veins and arteries. They are also believed to improve the function of the ductless glands through persistent gentle pressure. In Patanjali's system, asana was chiefly directed to the achievement of a firm cross-legged sitting position for meditation. Other yoga authorities, however, have elaborated the stages of Patanjali yoga to meet the requirements of different temperaments, so that they may be harmonized.

The asanas differ from Western gymnastics in that they feature static postures instead of active movements, though some asanas are linked sequentially. There are theoretically some 8,400,000 asanas, of which 84 are said to be the best and 32 the most useful for good health. These are named after animals, geometic structures, mountains, or plants. An asana is considered to be mastered when the yogi can maintain the position without strain for three hours. Asanas may be supplemented by special symbolic gestures and positions called mudras.

Various cleansing techniques, called kriyas, of the nasal passages, throat, stomach, and bowels can be practiced in conjunction with asanas. Pranayama, breathing exercises, are also employed to arouse kundalini or vital energy. Some systems focus upon the arousal of kundalini as the central spiritual discipline.

Hatha yoga had largely died out in India but was revived in the ninetee