Identify the cash flows available to an investor in stock. How reliably can these cash flow be estimated?

Why are refinance rates lower than new mortgage rates?

Because new borrowers may have no history of making payments while in a re-fi the bank knows the borrower made their payments reliably.

Importance of transportation in business?

Transportation plays a pivotal role in business and the broader economy. It is the lifeline of commerce, connecting producers, suppliers, and consumers while facilitating the exchange of goods and services. The importance of transportation in business can be summarized in several key aspects: Supply Chain Efficiency: Transportation is a fundamental component of the supply chain. It ensures the efficient movement of raw materials to manufacturers, finished products to distribution centers, and ultimately to end customers. An efficient supply chain reduces lead times and operational costs, improving overall business competitiveness. Market Access: Effective transportation allows businesses to reach wider markets. Whether it's selling products nationally or expanding internationally, transportation networks open up new opportunities for business growth. Customer Satisfaction: Reliable and timely delivery of goods is crucial for customer satisfaction. A well-managed transportation system ensures that products reach customers when promised, leading to customer loyalty and positive word-of-mouth. Cost Control: Transportation costs can be a significant portion of a business's expenses. Efficient transportation management helps control costs, whether through optimizing routes, reducing fuel consumption, or selecting the most cost-effective transport mode. Inventory Management: Efficient transportation systems enable businesses to maintain lower inventory levels. This minimizes holding costs and reduces the risk of obsolete or perishable inventory.

How do you get started building a credit history?

Building a Credit HistoryOn your first attempt to get a loan or credit card, you may face a common frustration: you don't have a credit history. Some creditors will look only at your salary and job and the other financial information that you put on the application. But most also want to know about your track record in handling money, specifically, how reliably you've repaid past debts. They turn to the records kept by bureaus or reporting agencies whose business is to collect, store, and report information about borrowers that is routinely supplied by many lenders. These records include the amount of credit you have received and how faithfully you've repaid. Here are several ways you can begin to build a good credit history: Open a checking account or a savings account or both. These do not begin your credit history but may be checked as evidence that you have money and know how to manage it. Cancelled checks can be used to show that you pay utilities or rent bills regularly, a sign of reliability.Apply for a department store charge card. Repaying charge card bills on time is a plus in your credit history.Ask whether you may deposit funds with a financial institution to serve as collateral for a charge card; some institutions will issue a charge card with a limit usually no greater than the amount on deposit.If you're new in town, write for a summary of any credit record kept by a bureau in your former town (Ask the bank or department store in your old hometown for the name of the agency it reports to).If you don't qualify on the basis of your own standing, offer to have someone cosign your application.If you're turned down, find out why and try to resolve any misunderstandings.I recommend approaching a small community bank or local credit union. Be honest and forthright, explaining your situation, either you have no credit, or bad credit. Request a "secured credit card" and open a savings or checking account there with a debit card. If you are refused, ask what steps you need to take to get both types of cards. For a secured credit card, you will have to make a deposit equal to the amount of your credit limit. Offer to have automatic deduction from the bank account to pay for your purchases. After a period of time, 6 months to a year, you can request that the funds securing the cards be released and its' status changed to a regular credit card.I agree with this answer but I would also add that the chances of you getting any type of credit in this market are very low. I would advise you skip applying around because you'll lose points with each request. About 50% of credit unions and banks offer secured cards. I would check that route first.After you have your secured card (s) about 6 months, you will see a rise in your credit score. After 12 months, it will be even better and the lender should review your account and convert to unsecured (if you've handled it well).The last thing is keep all of your balances under 30% of your credit limit. Within 12 months, you will be sitting very nice.

Where use PLC systems?

Siemens Simatic S7-400 system at rack, left-to-right: power supply unit PS407 4A,CPU 416-3, interface module IM 460-0 and communication processor CP 443-1.A Programmable Logic Controller, PLC or Programmable Controller is a digital computer used for automation of electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery on factory assembly lines, amusement rides, or light fixtures. The abbreviation "PLC" and the term "Programmable Logic Controller" are registered trademarks of the Allen-Bradley Company (Rockwell Automation). PLCs are used in many industries and machines. Unlike general-purpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and output arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to control machine operation are typically stored in battery-backed-up or non-volatile memory. A PLC is an example of a hard real time system since output results must be produced in response to input conditions within a limited time, otherwise unintended operation will result.HistoryBefore the PLC, control, sequencing, and safety interlock logic for manufacturing automobiles was mainly composed of relays, cam timers, drum sequencers, and dedicated closed-loop controllers. Since these could number in the hundreds or even thousands, the process for updating such facilities for the yearly model change-over was very time consuming and expensive, as electricians needed to individually rewire relays to change the logic. Digital computers, being general-purpose programmable devices, were soon applied to control of industrial processes. Early computers required specialist programmers, and stringent operating environmental control for temperature, cleanliness, and power quality. Using a general-purpose computer for process control required protecting the computer from the plant floor conditions. An industrial control computer would have several attributes: it would tolerate the shop-floor environment, it would support discrete (bit-form) input and output in an easily extensible manner, it would not require years of training to use, and it would permit its operation to be monitored. The response time of any computer system must be fast enough to be useful for control; the required speed varying according to the nature of the process.[1]In 1968 GM Hydra-Matic (the automatic transmission division of General Motors) issued a request for proposals for an electronic replacement for hard-wired relay systems based on a white paper written by engineer Edward R. Clark. The winning proposal came from Bedford Associates of Bedford, Massachusetts. The first PLC, designated the 084 because it was Bedford Associates' eighty-fourth project, was the result.[2] Bedford Associates started a new company dedicated to developing, manufacturing, selling, and servicing this new product: Modicon, which stood for MOdular DIgital CONtroller. One of the people who worked on that project was Dick Morley, who is considered to be the "father" of the PLC.[3] The Modicon brand was sold in 1977 to Gould Electronics, and later acquired by German Company AEG and then by French Schneider Electric, the current owner.One of the very first 084 models built is now on display at Modicon's headquarters in North Andover, Massachusetts. It was presented to Modicon by GM, when the unit was retired after nearly twenty years of uninterrupted service. Modicon used the 84 moniker at the end of its product range until the 984 made its appearance.The automotive industry is still one of the largest users of PLCs.DevelopmentEarly PLCs were designed to replace relay logic systems. These PLCs were programmed in "ladder logic", which strongly resembles a schematic diagram of relay logic. This program notation was chosen to reduce training demands for the existing technicians. Other early PLCs used a form of instruction list programming, based on a stack-based logic solver. Modern PLCs can be programmed in a variety of ways, from the relay-derived ladder logic to programming languages such as specially adapted dialects of BASIC and C. Another method is State Logic, a very high-level programming language designed to program PLCs based on state transition diagrams.Many early PLCs did not have accompanying programming terminals that were capable of graphical representation of the logic, and so the logic was instead represented as a series of logic expressions in some version of Boolean format, similar to Boolean algebra. As programming terminals evolved, it became more common for ladder logic to be used, for the aforementioned reasons and because it was a familiar format used for electromechanical control panels. Newer formats such as State Logic and Function Block (which is similar to the way logic is depicted when using digital integrated logic circuits) exist, but they are still not as popular as ladder logic. A primary reason for this is that PLCs solve the logic in a predictable and repeating sequence, and ladder logic allows the programmer (the person writing the logic) to see any issues with the timing of the logic sequence more easily than would be possible in other formats.ProgrammingEarly PLCs, up to the mid-1980s, were programmed using proprietary programming panels or special-purpose programming terminals, which often had dedicated function keys representing the various logical elements of PLC programs.[2] Some propreitary programming terminals displayed the elements of PLC programs as graphic symbols, but plain ASCII character representations of contacts, coils, and wires were common. Programs were stored on cassette tape cartridges. Facilities for printing and documentation were minimal due to lack of memory capacity. The very oldest PLCs used non-volatile magnetic core memory. More recently, PLCs are programmed using application software on personal computers, which now represent the logic in graphic form instead of character symbols. The computer is connected to the PLC through Ethernet, RS-232, RS-485 or RS-422 cabling. The programming software allows entry and editing of the ladder-style logic. Generally the software provides functions for debugging and troubleshooting the PLC software, for example, by highlighting portions of the logic to show current status during operation or via simulation. The software will upload and download the PLC program, for backup and restoration purposes. In some models of programmable controller, the program is transferred from a personal computer to the PLC through a programming board which writes the program into a removable chip such as an EEPROM or EPROM.FunctionalityThe functionality of the PLC has evolved over the years to include sequential relay control, motion control, process control, distributed control systems and networking. The data handling, storage, processing power and communication capabilities of some modern PLCs are approximately equivalent to desktop computers. PLC-like programming combined with remote I/O hardware, allow a general-purpose desktop computer to overlap some PLCs in certain applications. Regarding the practicality of these desktop computer based logic controllers, it is important to note that they have not been generally accepted in heavy industry because the desktop computers run on less stable operating systems than do PLCs, and because the desktop computer hardware is typically not designed to the same levels of tolerance to temperature, humidity, vibration, and longevity as the processors used in PLCs. In addition to the hardware limitations of desktop based logic, operating systems such as Windows do not lend themselves to deterministic logic execution, with the result that the logic may not always respond to changes in logic state or input status with the extreme consistency in timing as is expected from PLCs. Still, such desktop logic applications find use in less critical situations, such as laboratory automation and use in small facilities where the application is less demanding and critical, because they are generally much less expensive than PLCs. Programmable Logic Relay (PLR)In more recent years, small products called PLRs (programmable logic relays), and also by similar names, have become more common and accepted. These are very much like PLCs, and are used in light industry where only a few points of I/O (i.e. a few signals coming in from the real world and a few going out) are involved, and low cost is desired. These small devices are typically made in a common physical size and shape by several manufacturers, and branded by the makers of larger PLCs to fill out their low end product range. Popular names include PICO Controller, NANO PLC, and other names implying very small controllers. Most of these have between 8 and 12 discrete inputs, 4 and 8 discrete outputs, and up to 2 analog inputs. Size is usually about 4" wide, 3" high, and 3" deep. Most such devices include a tiny postage stamp sized LCD screen for viewing simplified ladder logic (only a very small portion of the program being visible at a given time) and status of I/O points, and typically these screens are accompanied by a 4-way rocker push-button plus four more separate push-buttons, similar to the key buttons on a VCR remote control, and used to navigate and edit the logic. Most have a small plug for connecting via RS-232 or RS-485 to a personal computer so that programmers can use simple Windows applications for programming instead of being forced to use the tiny LCD and push-button set for this purpose. Unlike regular PLCs that are usually modular and greatly expandable, the PLRs are usually not modular or expandable, but their price can be two orders of magnitude less than a PLC and they still offer robust design and deterministic execution of the logic. PLC topicsFeaturesControl panel with PLC (grey elements in the center). The unit consists of separate elements, from left to right; power supply, controller, relay units for in- and output The main difference from other computers is that PLCs are armored for severe conditions (such as dust, moisture, heat, cold) and have the facility for extensive input/output (I/O) arrangements. These connect the PLC to sensors and actuators. PLCs read limit switches, analog process variables (such as temperature and pressure), and the positions of complex positioning systems. Some use machine vision.[4] On the actuator side, PLCs operate electric motors, pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders, magnetic relays, solenoids, or analog outputs. The input/output arrangements may be built into a simple PLC, or the PLC may have external I/O modules attached to a computer network that plugs into the PLC.Scan timeA PLC program is generally executed repeatedly as long as the controlled system is running. The status of physical input points is copied to an area of memory accessible to the processor, sometimes called the "I/O Image Table". The program is then run from its first instruction rung down to the last rung. It takes some time for the processor of the PLC to evaluate all the rungs and update the I/O image table with the status of outputs.[5] This scan time may be a few milliseconds for a small program or on a fast processor, but older PLCs running very large programs could take much longer (say, up to 100 ms) to execute the program. If the scan time was too long, the response of the PLC to process conditions would be too slow to be useful. As PLCs became more advanced, methods were developed to change the sequence of ladder execution, and subroutines were implemented.[6] This simplified programming could be used to save scan time for high-speed processes; for example, parts of the program used only for setting up the machine could be segregated from those parts required to operate at higher speed.Special-purpose I/O modules, such as timer modules or counter modules, can be used where the scan time of the processor is too long to reliably pick up, for example, counting pulses and interpreting quadrature from a shaft encoder. The relatively slow PLC can still interpret the counted values to control a machine, but the accumulation of pulses is done by a dedicated module that is unaffected by the speed of the program execution.System scaleA small PLC will have a fixed number of connections built in for inputs and outputs. Typically, expansions are available if the base model has insufficient I/O. Modular PLCs have a chassis (also called a rack) into which are placed modules with different functions. The processor and selection of I/O modules are customized for the particular application. Several racks can be administered by a single processor, and may have thousands of inputs and outputs. A special high speed serial I/O link is used so that racks can be distributed away from the processor, reducing the wiring costs for large plants.User interfaceSee also: User interface and List of human-computer interaction topics PLCs may need to interact with people for the purpose of configuration, alarm reporting or everyday control. A human-machine interface (HMI) is employed for this purpose. HMIs are also referred to as man-machine interfaces (MMIs) and graphical user interface (GUIs). A simple system may use buttons and lights to interact with the user. Text displays are available as well as graphical touch screens. More complex systems use programming and monitoring software installed on a computer, with the PLC connected via a communication interface.CommunicationsPLCs have built in communications ports, usually 9-pin RS-232, but optionally EIA-485 or Ethernet. Modbus, BACnet or DF1 is usually included as one of the communications protocols. Other options include various fieldbuses such as DeviceNet or Profibus. Other communications protocols that may be used are listed in the List of automation protocols. Most modern PLCs can communicate over a network to some other system, such as a computer running a SCADA (Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition) system or web browser.PLCs used in larger I/O systems may have peer-to-peer (P2P) communication between processors. This allows separate parts of a complex process to have individual control while allowing the subsystems to co-ordinate over the communication link. These communication links are also often used for HMI devices such as keypads or PC-type workstations.ProgrammingPLC programs are typically written in a special application on a personal computer, then downloaded by a direct-connection cable or over a network to the PLC. The program is stored in the PLC either in battery-backed-up RAM or some other non-volatile flash memory. Often, a single PLC can be programmed to replace thousands of relays.[7] Under the IEC 61131-3 standard, PLCs can be programmed using standards-based programming languages. A graphical programming notation called Sequential Function Charts is available on certain programmable controllers. Initially most PLCs utilized Ladder Logic Diagram Programming, a model which emulated electromechanical control panel devices (such as the contact and coils of relays) which PLCs replaced. This model remains common today.IEC 61131-3 currently defines five programming languages for programmable control systems: function block diagram (FBD), ladder diagram (LD), structured text (ST; similar to the Pascal programming language), instruction list (IL; similar to assembly language) and sequential function chart (SFC).[8] These techniques emphasize logical organization of operations.[7]While the fundamental concepts of PLC programming are common to all manufacturers, differences in I/O addressing, memory organization and instruction sets mean that PLC programs are never perfectly interchangeable between different makers. Even within the same product line of a single manufacturer, different models may not be directly compatible.PLC compared with other control systemsAllen-Bradley PLC installed in a control panel PLCs are well adapted to a range of automation tasks. These are typically industrial processes in manufacturing where the cost of developing and maintaining the automation system is high relative to the total cost of the automation, and where changes to the system would be expected during its operational life. PLCs contain input and output devices compatible with industrial pilot devices and controls; little electrical design is required, and the design problem centers on expressing the desired sequence of operations. PLC applications are typically highly customized systems, so the cost of a packaged PLC is low compared to the cost of a specific custom-built controller design. On the other hand, in the case of mass-produced goods, customized control systems are economical. This is due to the lower cost of the components, which can be optimally chosen instead of a "generic" solution, and where the non-recurring engineering charges are spread over thousands or millions of units.For high volume or very simple fixed automation tasks, different techniques are used. For example, a consumer dishwasher would be controlled by an electromechanical cam timer costing only a few dollars in production quantities.A microcontroller-based design would be appropriate where hundreds or thousands of units will be produced and so the development cost (design of power supplies, input/output hardware and necessary testing and certification) can be spread over many sales, and where the end-user would not need to alter the control. Automotive applications are an example; millions of units are built each year, and very few end-users alter the programming of these controllers. However, some specialty vehicles such as transit buses economically use PLCs instead of custom-designed controls, because the volumes are low and the development cost would be uneconomical.[9]Very complex process control, such as used in the chemical industry, may require algorithms and performance beyond the capability of even high-performance PLCs. Very high-speed or precision controls may also require customized solutions; for example, aircraft flight controls. Single-board computers using semi-customized or fully proprietary hardware may be chosen for very demanding control applications where the high development and maintenance cost can be supported. "Soft PLCs" running on desktop-type computers can interface with industrial I/O hardware while executing programs within a version of commercial operating systems adapted for process control needs.[9]Programmable controllers are widely used in motion control, positioning control and torque control. Some manufacturers produce motion control units to be integrated with PLC so that G-code (involving a CNC machine) can be used to instruct machine movements.[citation needed]PLCs may include logic for single-variable feedback analog control loop, a "proportional, integral, derivative" or "PID controller". A PID loop could be used to control the temperature of a manufacturing process, for example. Historically PLCs were usually configured with only a few analog control loops; where processes required hundreds or thousands of loops, a distributed control system (DCS) would instead be used. As PLCs have become more powerful, the boundary between DCS and PLC applications has become less distinct.PLCs have similar functionality as Remote Terminal Units. An RTU, however, usually does not support control algorithms or control loops. As hardware rapidly becomes more powerful and cheaper, RTUs, PLCs and DCSs are increasingly beginning to overlap in responsibilities, and many vendors sell RTUs with PLC-like features and vice versa. The industry has standardized on the IEC 61131-3 functional block language for creating programs to run on RTUs and PLCs, although nearly all vendors also offer proprietary alternatives and associated development environments.In recent years "Safety" PLCs have started to become popular, either as standalone models or as functionality and safety-rated hardware added to existing controller architectures (Allen Bradley Guardlogix, Siemens F-series etc.). These differ from conventional PLC types as being suitable for use in safety-critical applications for which PLCs have traditionally been supplemented with hard-wired safety relays. For example, a Safety PLC might be used to control access to a robot cell with trapped-key access, or perhaps to manage the shutdown response to an emergency stop on a conveyor production line. Such PLCs typically have a restricted regular instruction set augmented with safety-specific instructions designed to interface with emergency stops, light screens and so forth. The flexibility that such systems offer has resulted in rapid growth of demand for these controllers.Discrete and analog signalsDiscrete signals behave as binary switches, yielding simply an On or Off signal (1 or 0, True or False, respectively). Push buttons, Limit switches, and photoelectric sensors are examples of devices providing a discrete signal. Discrete signals are sent using either voltage or current, where a specific range is designated as On and another as Off. For example, a PLC might use 24 V DC I/O, with values above 22 V DC representing On, values below 2VDC representing Off, and intermediate values undefined. Initially, PLCs had only discrete I/O. Analog signals are like volume controls, with a range of values between zero and full-scale. These are typically interpreted as integer values (counts) by the PLC, with various ranges of accuracy depending on the device and the number of bits available to store the data. As PLCs typically use 16-bit signed binary processors, the integer values are limited between -32,768 and +32,767. Pressure, temperature, flow, and weight are often represented by analog signals. Analog signals can use voltage or current with a magnitude proportional to the value of the process signal. For example, an analog 0 - 10 V input or 4-20 mA would be converted into an integer value of 0 - 32767.Current inputs are less sensitive to electrical noise (i.e. from welders or electric motor starts) than voltage inputs.ExampleAs an example, say a facility needs to store water in a tank. The water is drawn from the tank by another system, as needed, and our example system must manage the water level in the tank by controlling the valve that refills the tank. Shown is a "ladder diagram" which shows the control system. A ladder diagram is a method of drawing control circuits which pre-dates PLCs. The ladder diagram resembles the schematic diagram of a system built with electromechanical relays. Shown are: Two inputs (from the low and high level switches) represented by contacts of the float switchesAn output to the fill valve, labelled as the fill valve which it controlsAn "internal" contact, representing the output signal to the fill valve which is created in the program.A logical control scheme created by the interconnection of these items in softwareIn the ladder diagram, the contact symbols represent the state of bits in processor memory, which corresponds to the state of physical inputs to the system. If a discrete input is energized, the memory bit is a 1, and a "normally open" contact controlled by that bit will pass a logic "true" signal on to the next element of the ladder. Internal status bits, corresponding to the state of discrete outputs, are also available to the program.In the example, the physical state of the float switch contacts must be considered when choosing "normally open" or "normally closed" symbols in the ladder diagram. The PLC has two discrete inputs from float switches (Low Level and High Level). Both float switches (normally closed) open their contacts when the water level in the tank is above the physical location of the switch.When the water level is below both switches, the float switch physical contacts are both closed, and a true (logic 1) value is passed to the Fill Valve output. Water begins to fill the tank. The internal "Fill Valve" contact latches the circuit so that even when the "Low Level" contact opens (as the water passes the lower switch), the fill valve remains on. Since the High Level is also normally closed, water continues to flow as the water level remains between the two switch levels. Once the water level rises enough so that the "High Level" switch is off (opened), the PLC will shut the inlet to stop the water from overflowing; this is an example of seal-in (latching) logic. The output is sealed in until a high level condition breaks the circuit. After that the fill valve remains off until the level drops so low that the Low Level switch is activated, and the process repeats again. | | | Low Level High Level Fill Valve | |------[/]------|------[/]----------------------(OUT)---------| | | | | | | | | | | Fill Valve | | |------[ ]------| | | | | |A complete program may contain thousands of rungs, evaluated in sequence. Typically the PLC processor will alternately scan all its inputs and update outputs, then evaluate the ladder logic; input changes during a program scan will not be effective until the next I/O update. A complete program scan may take only a few milliseconds, much faster than changes in the controlled process.Programmable controllers vary in their capabilities for a "rung" of a ladder diagram. Some only allow a single output bit. There are typically limits to the number of series contacts in line, and the number of branches that can be used. Each element of the rung is evaluated sequentially. If elements change their state during evaluation of a rung, hard-to-diagnose faults can be generated, although sometimes (as above) the technique is useful. Some implementations forced evaluation from left-to-right as displayed and did not allow reverse flow of a logic signal (in multi-branched rungs) to affect the output.

Identify the cash flows available to an investor in stock. How reliably can these cash flow be estimated?

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