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What structures or molecular machines are important for protein degradation in eukaryotes?
proteasome
How does Ubiquitin tagging fit into the process of protein degradation?
Ubiquitin tagging allows the 19S subunit of the 26S proteasome to recognize the potential protein substrate.
In what locations can proteasome be located?
Proteasomes are protein complexes. These protein complexes are present in eukaryotes, some bacteria and in archaea. The proteasomes are located in the nucleus and the cytoplasm when looking at eukaryotes.
What are the types of lysosomes?
The two types of lysosomes are Peroxisomes which is a vesicle containing oxidases and catalase. It's located by the smooth ER of the animal cell. The second type of lysosme is the Proteasome which is a tiny barrel-shaped structure that contain proteases. Peroxisomes functions include oxidizing amio acids and fatty acids; also detoxifing alcohol. The functions of Proteasome includes degrading unneeded, damaged, or faulty proteins by cutting them into small peptides.
What are analogies for lysosomes?
The function for the lysosomes is to get rid of all the waste in a cell. An analogy might be a garbage man or garbage truck. Another analogy for the lysosome is our digestive system because it helps take out the junk in our body and so does the lysosome for the cell. It might also functions sort of like a garbage disposal, since it breaks down waste.
What is the difference between a class I MHC mechanism vs a class II MHC mechanism?
The Class I MHC molecules process endogenous(intracellular) peptides/antigens whereas the Class II process exogenous(extracellular) peptides/antigens. The Class I molecules are assembled and located in the ER whereas the Class II are assembled in the ER but located in the endosomes. When extracellular peptides are taken into the cell via receptor mediated endocytosis or phagocytosis, they will be transported into the endosomes and get degraded. This will enable the peptide generated to be loaded onto the Class II molecules. For Class I, when a bacteria or virus infect a cell, they will replicate and produce proteins. These proteins will be ubiquitinated and degraded by the proteasome. This smaller peptides can then be transported into the ER via the TAP transporters, that are complexed with the Class I molecules, to be loaded onto the Class I molecules.
How are proteins renewed?
Every protein molecule sooner or later reaches the end of its lifetime. This might be for example when oxidative damage has degraded it to the point where it cannot fulfill its function.The only option left to the cell in this case is to somehow get rid of the damaged protein. A typical mechanism for this is called ubiquitinylation. This means that several ubiquitin residues are attached to the damaged protein. These residues will result in the protein being transported to the proteasome, where it is broken down into amino acids.To maintain the function that the protein was performing, the cell has to create new protein molecules of the same type. This happens through the common pathway of gene expression:The gene which encodes the protein is transcribed from the genomic DNA in the nucleus. This produces mRNA encoding the protein, which is shuttled to the cytoplasm.Ribosomes in the cytoplasm attach to the mRNA and start translating the protein, coupling amino acids to each other in the sequence defined by the mRNA.The resulting amino acid chain will then fold into the finished protein (either on its own, or with some help from chaperones).
What type of mutation affects the largest number of genes?
Chromosomal mutation
How is bone marrow cancer best treated?
Bone marrow cancer, also known as multiple myeloma, is a type of cancer that affects plasma cells in the bone marrow. Treatment for multiple myeloma is typically individualized based on the stage of the disease, the patient's overall health, and various other factors. Common treatment options for multiple myeloma may include the following: Chemotherapy: Chemotherapy drugs are often used to kill or slow the growth of cancer cells in the bone marrow. Targeted Therapies: Medications like proteasome inhibitors (e.g., bortezomib, carfilzomib) and immunomodulatory drugs (e.g., lenalidomide, thalidomide) target specific proteins or pathways in cancer cells to inhibit their growth. Immunotherapy: Immunotherapies, such as monoclonal antibodies (e.g., daratumumab, elotuzumab), enhance the body's immune response to target and destroy cancer cells. Stem Cell Transplantation: Autologous stem cell transplant (using the patient's own stem cells) or allogeneic stem cell transplant (using donor stem cells) may be considered to replace damaged bone marrow with healthy cells. This can be an option for some patients, particularly in cases of more aggressive disease. Radiation Therapy: Radiation therapy may be used to target specific areas where the cancer has formed tumors or is causing bone pain. Bisphosphonates: These drugs are used to strengthen bone and reduce the risk of fractures in patients with multiple myeloma, as the disease can weaken the bones. Supportive Care: Managing symptoms and complications is an essential part of treatment. This may include pain management, addressing anemia, and providing medications to manage side effects. Clinical Trials: Participation in clinical trials can provide access to cutting-edge treatments and therapies that are still in the experimental phase. Maintenance Therapy: Some patients may receive ongoing or maintenance therapy to help keep the disease in check and extend periods of remission. Treatment plans are tailored to the individual patient, and they may evolve over time based on the patient's response to therapy and the progression of the disease. It's essential for individuals diagnosed with bone marrow cancer to work closely with a team of healthcare professionals, including hematologists or oncologists, to determine the most appropriate treatment plan for their specific case. Additionally, multiple myeloma is a complex disease, and new treatments and therapies are continually being developed. Therefore, staying informed about the latest advances in multiple myeloma treatment and considering second opinions from specialists are important aspects of managing the condition.
Another science word that starts with a P?
P element P1 P1-derived artificial chromosome P1-derived artificial chromosome (PAC) P53 PAC pachynema Paleontology palindrome Palindromic sequence pAMP Pan balance Panel testing panmictic papilla papillate paracentric inversion paralogous genes paramecin parameters parapatric speciation Parasegment border parasexual cycle parasite Parasitism Parasitology parasympathetic nervous system paratope parent generation parental ditype (PD) parenteral parietal lobes parthenogenesis partial digest particle particulate inheritance parts per billion (ppb) Parts per million (ppm) Pascal's triangle passive diffusion passive transport paternally path diagram pathogen pathogenesis pathogenic pathogenicity pathology pathovar patient patroclinous inheritance pattern formation pBR 322 pBR322 PCR PCR amplicons pedigree pelagic pellet Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) penetrance pent- peptide peptide bond peptidyl site peptidyl transferase per- percent coefficient of variation percent concentration percent error percent yield peri- peri-natal pericentric inversion pericentromere perinatal period periodic law peripheral membrane protein peripheral nervous system (PNS) peripheral neurons peripheral neuropathy periphyton permissive condition permissive temperature peroxidase Persistence Pest sequence Pesticide petite petite mutation petrifaction pH pH scale phagocytes phagocytosis pharmacotyping pharyngeal arches pharynx phasmid Phencyclidine hydrochloride (PCP) phenocopy phenotype phenotypic sex determination phenotypic variance Phenylalanine phenylketonuria (pku) pheromone Philadelphia chromosome phloem Phosphatase Phosphate group phosphodiester bond phosphodiesterase Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) phospholipids Phosphorus (P) phosphorylate Phosphorylation photic zone photoautotroph photoheterotroph photon photoreactivation Photorespiration phragmospore phyletic gradualism phylloplane phylogenetic tree physical change physical chemistry Physical map phytoplankton phytoplasma phytotoxic phytotoxin piebald pilus (plural pili) Pipettes Pituitary pK pKa placebo placenta planet plankton plant plant breeding plaque plasma Plasma membrane plasmalemma plasmid plasmid suicide vector plasmogamy plasmolysis plastid plate platelet platelet-activating factor (PAF) Pleiotrophy pleiotropic mutation pleiotropy pleo- plerome plesionecrosis plexus ploidy Pluripotency PMA poikilothermal point mutation Poisson distribution poky mutation polar polar body polar covalent bond polar effect polar gene conversion polar granules polar molecule polar mutation polarity polarity gene Pole cells Pollen grain pollinator Poly(A) polymerase poly- poly-A tail poly-dA/poly-dT technique polyacrylamide Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis polyadenosine tail polyatomic polycistronic polycistronic mRNA Polyclonal antibodies polydactyly polyethylene polygene polygenic Polygenic disorder polygenic inheritance polyinvagination islands Polylinker Polymer polymerase (DNA or RNA) polymerase chain reaction polymerase slippage polymerase slippage model polymerize polymodal polymorphism polynucleate Polynucleotide polynucleotide phosphorylase polynucleotide polymerase polyolefin polypeptide polyphenism polyphyletic polyploid polysaccharide polysome polyspermy polytene chromosome Polyvalent vaccine pons population population density Population genetics position effect position-effect variegation Positional cloning Positional information positive assortative mating positive control positive interference post- post-transcriptional modification posterior neuropore postmortem postreplicative repair Postsynaptic Membrane potential energy potentiometric titration pre- pre-mRNA pre-symptomatic pre-synaptic terminal precipitate precision precocious predation predator preemptor stem preformationism Premarket Approval prey Pribnow box Primary cell primary consumer primary oocyte primary spermatocyte primary structure primary transcript primase primer primitive folds primitive streak primosome prion prion rods pro-inflammatory cytokines probability probability theory probe Probe Amplification processivity producer product product of meiosis product rule proflavin progeny testing prokaryote prokaryotic cell prolepsis proliferate Proline promoter Pronucleus proofread prophage prophase proplastid propositus prosencephalon prostaglandins prostate gland protamine protease proteasome protein protein aggregate protein synthesis Proteolytic Proteome Proteomics proto-oncogene protocorm proton proton acceptor proton donor proton gradient protoplast protostomes prototroph provirus prox- proximal PrP pseudo- pseudoallele pseudoautosomal gene pseudodominance pseudogene pull down assays pull-down assays pulse-chase experiment pulsed-field gel electrophoresis punctuated equilibrium Punnett square pure pure-breeding line or strain purines Purkinje cells putamen pycnosis pygmism pyknosis pyramidal nerve cells pyriform pyrimidine pyruvate pyruvic acid
How is Parkinson's disease diagnosed?
Parkinson's Disease is a hard disease to diagnose. Since there is no test to check for Parkinson's Disease, a doctor will examine a patient, and try to see if they are suffering from any of the symptoms.
