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Surprisingly little. Both are .30 caliber, one uses a longer case and more powder, than the other. The 30-06 is a longer cartridge. It is a similar situation as the .38/.357 and the .44mag/.44sp, or the .45LC/.454

The performance difference between the two is pretty small, with the 06 showing a flatter trajectory at the greater distances. Unless you're competitive, you'll be quite happy with either caliber.

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Q: What is the difference between a 308 and a 30-06?
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