Italian merchant who traveled overland to China in the 1270's?

Different stories had different numbers of knights, ranging from only 12 to 150 or more. The Winchester Round Table, which dates from the 1270s lists 25 names of knights. See the related link for a list of names. The only medieval account which says there were 12 knights of the Round Table, plus the Siege Perilous, is the prose Perceval which claims to be by Robert de Boron. Though this work does not specifically name the Knights of the Round Table, perhaps by chance, exactly 13 prominent Arthurian knights are mentioned in this work: # Kay the Seneschal # Bedwyr # Gawain son of King Lot # Mordred son of King Lot # Garries son of King Lot (Malory's Gareth) # Guirres son of King Lot (Malory's Gaheris) # Yvain son of King Urien # Yvain White-hands # Lancelot of the Lake # Saigremor # Dodinel # Erec Perceval sits in the Siege Perilous in this story, as the thirteenth knight.

In western Russia, Volga Bulgaria, or Volga-Kama Bolghar, (an Islamic Bulgar state which had been established by conquest in the area of the river Volga) and the Rus of Kiev came under the ulus of the Golden Horde or Ulus of Jochi. The Rus of Kiev was a state which before the Mongol invasion controlled lands from the Black Sea to the Baltic Sea in western Russia and is regarded as the precursor of Russia. An ulus was a unit of the Mongol Empire, which was subdivided among the descendants of Genghis Kahn. By the late 13th century the various ulus became independent states called Khanates. This ulus stretched to the northwest of China across Central Asia, the Caspian Sea, the Ural mountains, the Caucasus Mountains and the Ukrainian steppes. The term Golden Horde was first used in the 14th century to indicate the residence of the Khans, the rulers of the Mongol empire and the various ulus. Its use with reference to the Ulus of Jochi was adopted by Slavic sources. It first appeared in Russian chronicles in the 16th century. Golden may have referred to either to the yellow tents of the Mongol army or to the wealth of the Kahn. Horde may have referred to the Mongolic word ordu, which meant palace or camp headquarters. The Mongolic word for yellow also meant centre/central. Therefore, the name may have meant central camp. The Ulus of Jochi, which was founded by Batu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Kahn, in the 1240s. It was also subdivided into an eastern and western wing, which were dubbed by Slavic sources Blue Horde and White Horde respectively. In western sources the Ulus of Joshi was called Tartaria of Kipchak. Ulus of Jochi declared itself independent in the 1270s and became known as the Kipchak Khanate. This Ulus became Turkicised. The creation of the Mongol Empire involved an alliance between Mongol and Turkic peoples who lived in Central Asia, to the west of Mongolia. They spoke Turkic languages. The Turks who invaded Turkey were original form this part of Asia and spoke a Turkic language. This Ulus also adopted Islam. In the 15th c., the Kipchak Khanate broke into Kazan Khanate (1438, in the area of the former Volga Bulgaria) Crimean Khanate (1443, along the northern coast of the Black Sea), Nogai Horde (ca. 1445, in the northeast of the Caspian Sea), Astrakhan Khanate (1459, around the mouth of the river Volga) Great Horde Khanate (1466,) and Siberian Khanate (1490, western Siberia).

Castles have played an important military, economic and social role in Great Britain and Ireland since their introduction following the Norman invasion of England in 1066. Although a small number of castles had been built in England in the 1050s the Normans began to build motte and bailey and ringworks castles in large numbers to control their newly occupied territories in England and the Welsh Marches. During the 12th century the Normans began to build more castles in stone, with characteristic square keeps that played both military and political roles. Royal castles were used to control key towns and the economically important forests, while baronial castles were used by the Norman lords to control their widespread estates. David I invited Anglo-Norman lords into Scotland in the early 12th century to help him colonise and control areas of his kingdom such as Galloway; the new lords brought castle technologies with them and wooden castles began to be established over the south of the kingdom. Following the Norman invasion of Ireland in the 1170s, under Henry II, castles were established there too. Castles continued to grow in military sophistication and comfort during the 12th century, leading to a sharp increase in the complexity and length of sieges in England. While in Ireland and Wales castle architecture continued to follow that of England, after the death of Alexander III the trend in Scotland moved away from the construction of larger castles towards the use of smaller tower houses. The tower house style would also be adopted in the north of England and Ireland in later years. In North Wales Edward I built a sequence of militarily powerful castles after the destruction of the last Welsh polities in the 1270s. By the 14th century castles were combining defences with luxurious, sophisticated living arrangements and heavily landscaped gardens and parks. Many royal and baronial castles were left to decline, so that by the 15th century only a few were maintained for defensive purposes. A small number of castles in England and Scotland were developed into Renaissance Era palaces that hosted lavish feasts and celebrations amid their elaborate architecture. Such structures were, however, beyond the means of all but royalty and the richest of the late-medieval barons. Although gunpowder weapons were used to defend castles from the late 14th century onwards it became clear during the 16th century that, provided artillery could be transported and brought to bear on a besieged castle, gunpowder weapons could also play an important attack role. The defences of coastal castles around the British Isles were improved to deal with this threat, but investment in their upkeep once again declined at the end of the 16th century. Nevertheless, in the widespread civil and religious conflicts across the British Isles during the 1640s and 1650s, castles played a key role in England. Modern defences were quickly built alongside existing medieval fortifications and, in many cases, castles successfully withstood more than one siege. In Ireland the introduction of heavy siege artillery by Oliver Cromwell in 1649 brought a rapid end to the utility of castles in the war, while in Scotland the popular tower houses proved unsuitable for defending against civil war artillery - although major castles such as Edinburgh put up strong resistance. At the end of the war many castles were slighted to prevent future use. Military use of castles rapidly decreased over subsequent years, although some were adapted for use by garrisons in Scotland and key border locations for many years to come, including during the Second World War. Other castles were used as county jails, until parliamentary legislation in the 19th closed most of them down. For a period in the early 18th century castles were shunned in favour of Palladian architecture, until they re-emerged as an important cultural and social feature of England, Wales and Scotland and were frequently "improved" during the 18th and 19th centuries. Such renovations raised concerns over their protection so that today castles across the British Isles are safeguarded by legislation. Primarily used as tourist attractions, castles form a key part of the national heritage industry. Historians and archaeologists continue to develop our understanding of British castles, while vigorous academic debates in recent years have questioned the interpretation of physical and documentary material surrounding their original construction and use.

Bruno Abakanowicz, (1852-1900), Poland/Lithuania/Russia/France - Integraph, spirograph Vitaly Abalakov, (1906-1986), Russia - camming devices, Abalakov thread (or V-thread) gearless ice climbing anchor Hovannes Adamian, (1879-1932), Armenia/Russia - tricolor principle of the color television Robert Adler, (1913-2007), Austria/United States - wireless remote control Turhan Alçelik (c. 2006), Turkey - non-glaring headlamp Anatoly Alexandrov, (1903-1994), Russia - anti-mine demagnetising of ships, naval nuclear reactors (including one for the first nuclear icebreaker) Alexandre Alexeieff, (1901-1982) Russia/France - pinscreen animation (with his wife Claire Parker) Rostislav Alexeyev, (1916-1980), Russia - ekranoplan Zhores Alferov, (1930), Russia - heterotransistor, continuous-wave-operating diode laser (together with Dmitri Garbuzov) Genrich Altshuller, (1926-1998), Russia - TRIZ ("The Theory of Solving Inventor's Problems") Hermann Anschütz-Kaempfe, (1872-1931), Germany - Gyrocompass Mary Anderson, (1866-1953), United States - windshield wiper blade Vasily Andreyev, (1861-1918), Russia - standard balalaika Oleg Antonov, (1906-1984), Russia - An-series aircraft, including A-40 winged tank and An-124 (the largest serial cargo, later modified to world's largest fixed-wing aircraft An-225) Nicolas Appert, (1749-1841), France - canning (airtight food preservation) Archimedes, (c. 287-212 BC), Greece - Archimedes' screw Ami Argand, (1750-1803), France - Argand lamp Edwin H. Armstrong,(1890-1954), U.S. - FM radio William George Armstrong, (1810-1900), UK - hydraulic crane Neil Arnott, (1788-1874), UK - waterbed Lev Artsimovich, (1909-1973), Russia - tokamak Al-Ashraf, (fl. 1282-1296), Yemen - dry compass Joseph Aspdin, (1788-1855), England - Portland cement John Vincent Atanasoff, (1903-1995),Bulgaria/U.S. - modern digital computer Charles Babbage, (1791-1871), UK - analytical engine (semi-automatic computer) Roger Bacon, (1214-1292), England - magnifying glass Leo Baekeland, (1863-1944), Belgian-American - Velox photographic paper and Bakelite Ralph H. Baer, (1922-), German born American - video game console Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi, (1162-1231), Iraq/Egypt - ventilator John Logie Baird, (1888-1946), Scotland - an electromechanical television, electronic color television Ibn al-Baitar, (d. 1248), Islamic Spain - three hundred drugs and foods, cancer therapy, pharmacotherapy, Hindiba, pharmacopoeia Abi Bakr of Isfahan, (c. 1235), Persia/Iran - mechanical geared astrolabe with lunisolar calendar analog computer Donat Banki, (1859-1922), Hungary - inventor of the carburetor Vladimir Baranov-Rossine, (1888-1944), Ukraine/Russia/France - Optophonic Piano, pointillist or dynamic military camouflage John Barber, (1734-1801), England - gas turbine John Bardeen, (1908-1991), U.S. - co-inventor of the transistor Vladimir Barmin, (1909-1993), Russia - first rocket launch complex (spaceport) Anthony R. Barringer, Canada/U.S. - INPUT (Induced Pulse Transient) airborne electromagnetic system Earl W. Bascom, (1906-1995), Canada/U.S. - side-delivery rodeo chute, hornless rodeo saddle, rodeo bareback rigging, rodeo chaps Nikolay Basov, (1922-2001), Russia - co-inventor of laser and maser Ibn Bassal, (fl.1038-1075), Islamic Spain - flywheel, flywheel-driven noria, flywheel-driven saqiya chain pump Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī (Albatenius), (853-929), Syria/Turkey - observation tube Eugen Baumann, (1846-1896), Germany - PVC Trevor Baylis, (1937-), UK - a wind-up radio Francis Beaufort, (1774-1857), France - Beaufort scale Ernest Beaux, (1881-1961), Russia/France - Chanel No. 5 Arnold O. Beckman, (1900-2004), U.S. - pH meter Ulugh Beg, 1394-1449, Persia/Iran - Fakhri sextant, mural sextant Vladimir Bekhterev, (1857-1927), Russia - Bekhterev's Mixture Alexander Graham Bell, (1847-1922), Canada, Scotland, and U.S. - telephone Karl Benz, (1844-1929), Germany - the petrol-powered automobile Alexander Bereznyak, (1912-1974), Russia - first rocket-powered fighter aircraft, BI-1 (together with Isaev) Georgy Beriev, (1903-1979), Georgia/Russia - Be-series amphibious aircraft Emile Berliner, (1851-1929), Germany and U.S. - the disc record gramophone Nikolay Benardos, (1842-1905), Russia - arc welding (specifically carbon arc welding, the first arc welding method) Tim Berners-Lee, (1955-), UK - with Robert Cailliau, the World Wide Web Abu Mansoor Nizar al-Aziz Billah, (955-996), Egypt - airmail, homing pigeon Bi Sheng (Chinese: 畢昇), (ca. 990-1051), China - clay movable type printing Gerd Binnig, (1947-), Germany - with Heinrich Rohrer, scanning tunneling microscope Laszlo Biro, (1899-1985), Hungary - modern ballpoint pen Clarence Birdseye, (1886-1956), U.S. - frozen food process Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, (973-1048), Persia/Iran - mechanical geared lunisolar calendar analog computer, fixed-wired knowledge processing machine, conical measure, laboratory flask, Orthographical astrolabe, hodometer, pycnometer J. Stuart Blackton, (1875-1941), U.S. - stop-motion film Otto Blathy (1860-1939), Hungary - co-inventor of the transformer, wattmeter, alternating current (AC) and turbogenerator Fyodor Blinov, (1827-1902), Russia - first tracked vehicle, steam-powered continuous track tractor Katharine B. Blodgett, (1898-1979), UK - nonreflective glass Alan Blumlein, (1903-1942), England - stereo Nils Bohlin, (1920-2002), Sweden - the three-point seat belt Joseph-Armand Bombardier, (1907-1964), Canada - snowmobile Sam Born, Russia/U.S. - lollipop-making machine Satyendra Nath Bose, (1894-1974), India - work on gas-like properties of electromagnetic radiation, Boson and providing foundation for Bose-Einstein statistics and Bose-Einstein Condensate Jagdish Chandra Bose, (1858-1937), India - Crescograph George de Bothezat, (1882-1940), Russia/U.S. - quadrotor helicopter (The Flying Octopus) Robert W. Bower, (1936-), U.S. - self-aligned-gate MOSFET Seth Boyden, (1788-1870), U.S. - nail-making machine Walter Houser Brattain, (1902-1987), U.S. - co-inventor of the transistor Louis Braille, (1809-1852), France - the Braille writing system Jacques E. Brandenberger, (1872-1954), Switzerland - Cellophane Édouard Branly, (1844-1940), France - the coherer, the first widely used detector for radio communication. Karl Ferdinand Braun, (1850-1918), Germany - cathode-ray tube oscilloscope Harry Brearley, (1871-1948), UK - stainless steel Sergey Brin, (1973-), Russia/U.S. - with Larry Page invented Google web search engine Mikhail Britnev, (1822-1889), Russia - first metal-hull icebreaker (Pilot) Rachel Fuller Brown, (1898-1980), U.S. - Nystatin, the world's first antifungal antibiotic John Moses Browning, (1855-1926), U.S. - automatic handgun[disambiguation needed] Maria Christina Bruhn, (1732-1802), Sweden Nikolay Brusentsov, (born 1925), Russia - ternary computer (Setun) Edwin Beard Budding, (1795-1846), UK - lawnmower Gersh Budker, (1918-1977), Russia - electron cooling, co-inventor of collider Corliss Orville Burandt, U.S. - Variable valve timing Henry Burden,(1791-1871) Scotland and U.S. - Horseshoe machine (made 60 horse shoes in a minute), first usable Iron Railed road spike, and builder of the most powerful waterwheel in history "Niagara of Water-Wheels" Richard James Burgess, U.K. - Simmons (electronic drum company), co-inventor of SDS5 drum synthesizer Aleksandr Butlerov, (1828-1886), Russia - hexamine, formaldehyde C Robert Cailliau, (1947-), Belgium - with Tim Berners-Lee, the World Wide Web C`ai Lun, 蔡倫 (50-121 AD), China - paper Marvin Camras, (1916-1995), U.S. - magnetic recording Chester Carlson, (1906-1968), U.S. - Xerography Wallace Carothers, (1896-1937), U.S. - Nylon George Washington Carver, (1864-1943), U.S. - Peanut Butter Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi, (fl.1630-1632), Turkey - long-distance flight, artificial wings Lagari Hasan Celebi, (1633), Turkey - first manned rocket flight Joseph Constantine Carpue, (1764-1846), France - rhinoplastic surgery George Cayley, (1773-1857), UK - glider, tension-spoke wheels, Caterpillar track Roxey Ann Caplin, (1793-1888), UK - Corsets Dennis Charter, (1952-), Australia - secure electronic payment system for internet PaySafe Vladimir Chelomey, (1914-1984), Russia - first space station (Salyut), Proton rocket (the most used heavy lift launch system) Pavel Cherenkov, (1904-1990), Russia - Cherenkov detector Adrian Chernoff, (1971-), U.S. - GM Autonomy, GM Hy-wire, Rubber Bandits Evgeniy Chertovsky, (1902-), Russia - pressure suit Alexander Chizhevsky, (1897-1964), Russia - air ionizer Andrey Chokhov, (c. 1545-1629), Russia - Tsar Cannon Niels Christensen (1865-1952), U.S. - O-ring Samuel Hunter Christie, (1784-1865), UK - Wheatstone bridge Juan de la Cierva, (1895-1936), Spain - the autogyro Alexandru Ciurcu, (1854-1922), Romania - Reaction engine Georges Claude, (1870-1960), France - neon lamp Henri Coandă, (1886-1972), Romania - Jet engine Josephine Cochrane, (1839-1913), U.S. - dishwasher Christopher Cockerell, (1910-1999), UK - Hovercraft Aeneas Coffey, (1780-1852), Ireland - heat exchanger, Coffey still Sir Henry Cole, (1808-1882), England - Christmas card Samuel Colt, (1814-1862), U.S. - Revolver George Constantinescu, (1881-1965), Romania - Interrupter gear Lloyd Groff Copeman, (1865-1956), U.S. - Electric stove Cornelis Corneliszoon, (1550-1607), The Netherlands - sawmill Jacques Cousteau, (1910-1997), France - co-inventor of the aqualung and the Nikonos underwater camera Thomas Crapper, (1836-1910), England - ballcock (toilet valve) Bartolomeo Cristofori, (1655-1731), Italy - piano János Csonka, (1852-1939), Hungary - co-inventor of carburetor Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot, (1725-1804), France - first steam-powered road vehicle William Cumberland Cruikshank, (1745-1800), UK - chlorinated water William Cullen, (1710-1790), UK - first artificial refrigerator Glenn Curtiss, (1878-1930), U.S. - ailerons D Gustaf Dalén, (1869-1937), Sweden - AGA cooker; Dalén light; Agamassan Salvino D'Armate, (1258-1312), Italy - credited for inventing eyeglasses in 1284 Leonardo da Vinci, (1452-1519), Italy - conceptualized a helicopter, a tank, concentrated solar power, the double hull. Relatively few of his designs were constructed during his lifetime. Some that were used are an automated bobbin winder and a machine for testing the tensile strength of wire Corradino D'Ascanio, (1891-1981), Italy - D'AT3 helicopter; Vespa scooter Jacob Davis, (1868-1908), U.S. - riveted jeans Edmund Davy, (1785-1857), Ireland - acetylene Humphry Davy, (1778-1829), UK - Davy miners lamp Joseph Day, (1855-1946), UK - the crankcase-compression two-stroke engine Lee DeForest, (1873-1961), U.S. - triode Vasily Degtyaryov, (1880-1949), Russia - first self-loading carbine, Degtyaryov-series firearms, co-developer of Fedorov Avtomat Akinfiy Demidov, (1678-1745), Russia - co-developer of rebar, cast iron dome, lightning rod (all found in the Leaning Tower of Nevyansk) Yuri Nikolaevich Denisyuk, (1927-2006), Russia - 3D holography Miksa Deri (1854-1938), Hungary - co-inventor of an improved closed-core transformer James Dewar, (1842-1923), UK - Thermos flask Aleksandr Dianin, (1851-1918), Russia - Bisphenol A, Dianin's compound William Kennedy Laurie Dickson, (1860-1935), UK - motion picture camera Philip Diehl, (1847-1913), U.S. - Ceiling fan, electric sewing machine Rudolf Diesel, (1858-1913), Germany - Diesel engine Al-Dinawari, (828-896), Persia/Iran - more than a hundred plant drugs William H. Dobelle, (1943-2004), United States - first functioning artificial eye Ray Dolby, (1933-), U.S. - Dolby noise-reduction system Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky, (1862-1919),Poland/Russia - three-phase electric power (first 3-phase hydroelectric power plant, 3-phase electrical generator, 3-phase motor and 3-phase transformer) Nikolay Dollezhal, (1899-2000),Russia - AM-1 reactor for the 1st nuclear power plant, other RBMK reactors, VVER pressurized water reactors Bryan Donkin, (1768-1855), UK - print industry composition roller Hub van Doorne, (1900-1979), Netherlands, Variomatic continuously variable transmission Anastase Dragomir, (1896-1966), Romania - Ejection seat Karl Drais, (1785-1851), Germany - dandy horse (Draisine) Cornelius Drebbel, (1572-1633), The Netherlands - first navigable submarine Richard Drew, (1899-1980), U.S. - Masking tape John Boyd Dunlop, (1840-1921) UK - first practical pneumatic tyre Cyril Duquet, (1841-1922) Canada - Telephone handset Alexey Dushkin, (1904-1977), Russia - deep column station James Dyson, (1947- ) UK - Dual Cyclone bagless vacuum cleaner, incorporating the principles of cyclonic separation. E George Eastman, (1854-1932), U.S. - roll film Thomas Edison, (1847-1931), U.S. - phonograph, commercially practical light bulb, stock ticker, ticker-tape machine etc. Willem Einthoven, (1860-1927), The Netherlands - the electrocardiogram Ivan Elmanov, Russia - first monorail (horse-drawn) Rune Elmqvist, (1906-1996), Sweden - implantable pacemaker John Haven Emerson, (1906-1997), U.S. - iron lung Douglas Engelbart, (1925-), U.S. - the computer mouse John Ericsson, (1803-1889), Sweden - the two screw-propeller Lars Magnus Ericsson, (1846-1926), Sweden - the handheld micro telephone Ole Evinrude, (1877-1934), Norway - outboard motor F Peter Carl Fabergé, (1846-1920), Russia - Fabergé Eggs Samuel Face, (1923-2001), U.S. - concrete flatness/levelness technology; Lightning Switch Federico Faggin, (1941-), Italy - microprocessor Michael Faraday, (1791-1867), England - electric transformer, electric motor Johann Maria Farina, (1685-1766), Germany; Eau de Cologne Philo Farnsworth, (1906-1971), U.S. - electronic television Muhammad al-Fazari, (d. 796/806), Persia/Iran/Iraq - brass astrolabe James Fergason, (1934-), U.S. - improved liquid crystal display Enrico Fermi, (1901-1954), Italy - nuclear reactor Humberto Fernández Morán, (1924-1999), Venezuela - Diamond scalpel, Ultra microtome Reginald Fessenden, (1866-1932), Canada - two-way radio Adolf Gaston Eugen Fick, (1829-1901), Germany - contact lens Fatima al-Fihri, (c. 859), Tunisia/Morocco - university Abbas Ibn Firnas (Armen Firman), (810-887), Al-Andalus - eye glasses, artificial wings, watch, fused quartz and silica glass, artificial thunder and lightning, metronome Artur Fischer, (1919-) Germany - fasteners including fischertechnik. Gerhard Fischer, Germany/U.S. - hand-held metal detector Nicolas Florine, (1891-1972), Georgia/Russia/Belgium - first tandem rotor helicopter to fly freely Robert Fulton, (1765-1815), United States - first commercially successful steamboat, first practical submarine Alexander Fleming, (1881-1955), Scotland - penicillin John Ambrose Fleming, (1848-1945), England - vacuum diode Sandford Fleming, (1827-1915), Canada - Universal Standard Time Tommy Flowers, (1905-1998), England - Colossus an early electronic computer. Jean Bernard Léon Foucault, (1819-1868), France - Foucault pendulum, gyroscope, eddy current Benoît Fourneyron, (1802-1867), France - water turbine John Fowler, (1826-1864), England - steam-driven ploughing engine Benjamin Franklin, (1706-1790), U.S. - the pointed lightning rod conductor, bifocal glasses, the Franklin stove, the glass harmonica Augustin-Jean Fresnel, (1788-1827), France - Fresnel lens William Friese-Greene, (1855-1921), England - cinematography Buckminster Fuller, (1895-1983), U.S. - geodesic dome Ivan Fyodorov, (c. 1510-1583), Russia/Poland-Lithuania - invented multibarreled mortar, introduced printing in Russia Svyatoslav Fyodorov, (1927-2000), Russia - radial keratotomy Vladimir Fyodorov, (1874-1966), Russia - Fedorov Avtomat (first self-loading battle rifle, arguably the first assault rifle) Agapito Flores - Flourescent Lamp G Dennis Gabor, (1900-1979), UK - holography Boris Borisovich Galitzine, (1862-1916), Russia - electromagnetic seismograph Dmitri Garbuzov, (1940-2006), Russia/U.S. - continuous-wave-operating diode lasers (together with Zhores Alferov), high-power diode lasers Elmer R. Gates, (1859-1923), USA - foam fire extinguisher, electric loom mechanisms, magnetic & diamagnetic separators, educational toy ("box & blocks") Richard J. Gatling, (1818-1903), U.S. - wheat drill, first successful machine gun Georgy Gause, (1910-1986), Russia - gramicidin S, neomycin, lincomycin and other antibiotics E. K. Gauzen, Russia - three bolt equipment (early diving costume) Hans Wilhelm Geiger, (1882-1945), Germany - Geiger counter Andrey Geim, (born 1958), Russia/United Kingdom - graphene Nestor Genko, (1839-1904), Russia - Genko's Forest Belt (the first large-scale windbreak system) Henri Giffard, (1825-1882), France - powered airship, injector Valentyn Glushko, (1908-1989), Russia - hypergolic propellant, electric propulsion, Soviet rocket engines (including world's most powerful liquid-fuel rocket engine RD-170) Heinrich Göbel, (1818-1893), Germany - incandescent lamp Leonid Gobyato, (1875-1915), Russia - first modern man-portable mortar Robert Goddard, (1882-1945), U.S. - liquid fuel rocket Igor Gorynin, (1926), Russia - weldable titanium alloys, high strength aluminium alloys, radiation-hardened steels Peter Carl Goldmark, (1906-1977), Hungary - vinyl record (LP), CBS color television Charles Goodyear, (1800-1860), U.S. - vulcanization of rubber Gordon Gould, (1920-2005), U.S. - co-inventor of laser Richard Hall Gower, (1768-1833), England - ship's hull and rigging Boris Grabovsky, (1901-1966), Russia - cathode commutator, an early electronic TV pickup tube Bette Nesmith Graham, (1924-1980), U.S. - Liquid Paper James Henry Greathead, (1844-1896), South Africa - tunnel boring machine, tunnelling shield technique Chester Greenwood, (1858-1937), U.S. - thermal earmuffs James Gregory, (1638-1675), Scotland - Gregorian telescope William Robert Grove, (1811-1896), Wales - fuel cell Otto von Guericke, (1602-1686), Germany - vacuum pump, manometer, dasymeter Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, (1738-1814), France - Guillotine, a device for human decapitation Mikhail Gurevich, (1893-1976), Russia - MiG-series fighter aircraft, including world's most produced jet aircraft MiG-15 and most produced supersonic aircraft MiG-21 (together with Artem Mikoyan) Hakan Gürsu, (c. 2007), Turkey - Volitan Johann Gutenberg, (c. 1390s-1468), Germany - movable type printing press Samuel Guthrie, (1782-1848), U.S. - discovered chloroform H John Hadley, (1682-1744), England - Octant Waldemar Haffkine, (1860-1930), Russia/Switzerland - first anti-cholera and anti-plague vaccines Tracy Hall, (1919-2008 ), U.S. - synthetic diamond John Hays Hammond, Jr., (1888-1965), U.S. - radio control James Hargreaves, (1720-1778), England - spinning jenny John Harington, (1561-1612), England - the flush toilet John Harrison, (1693-1776), England - marine chronometer Victor Hasselblad, (1906-1978), Sweden - invented the 6 x 6 cm single-lens reflex camera Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), (965-1039), Iraq - camera obscura, pinhole camera, magnifying glass George H. Heilmeier, (1936-), U.S. - liquid crystal display (LCD) Robert A. Heinlein, (1907-1988), U.S. - waterbed Jozef Karol Hell, (1713-1789), Slovakia - the water pillar Rudolf Hell, (1901-2002), Germany - the Hellschreiber Joseph Henry, (1797-1878), Scotland/U.S. - electromagnetic relay Heron, (c. 10-70), Roman Egypt - usually credited with invention of the aeolipile, although it may have been described a century earlier John Herschel, (1792-1871), England - photographic fixer (hypo), actinometer William Herschel, (1738-1822), England - infrared Heinrich Hertz, (1857-1894), Germany - radio telegraphy, electromagnetic radiation George de Hevesy, (1885-1966), Hungary - radioactive tracer Rowland Hill, (1795-1879), UK - postage stamp Maurice Hilleman, (1919-2005) - vaccines against childhood diseases Ted Hoff, (1937-), U.S. - microprocessor Felix Hoffmann (Bayer), (1868-1949), Germany - Aspirin Herman Hollerith, (1860-1929), U.S. - recording data on a machine readable medium, tabulator, punched cards Nick Holonyak, (1928- ), U.S. - LED (Light Emitting Diode) Robert Hooke, (1635-1703), England - balance wheel, iris diaphragm Erna Schneider Hoover, (1926-), U.S. - computerized telephone switching system Frank Hornby, (1863-1936), England - invented Meccano Coenraad Johannes van Houten, (1801-1887), Netherlands - cocoa powder, cacao butter, chocolate milk Elias Howe, (1819-1867), U.S. - sewing machine Muhammad Husayn, (fl.17th century), Persia/Iran - cartographic Qibla indicator with sundial and compass Christiaan Huygens, (1629-1695), Netherlands - pendulum clock John Wesley Hyatt, (1837-1920), U.S. - celluloid manufacturing. I Sumio Iijima, (1939- ), Japan - Carbon nanotubes Gavriil Ilizarov, (1921-1992), Russia - Ilizarov apparatus, external fixation, distraction osteogenesis Sergey Ilyushin, (1894-1977), Russia - Il-series aircraft, including Ilyushin Il-2 bomber (the most produced military aircraft in history) János Irinyi, (1817-1895), Hungary - noiseless match Aleksei Isaev, (1908-1971), Russia - first rocket-powered fighter aircraft, BI-1 (together with Isaev) Ub Iwerks, (1901-1971), U. S. - Multiplane camera for animation J Jabir ibn Aflah (Geber), (c. 1100-1150), Islamic Spain - portable celestial globe Jābir ibn Hayyān (Geber), (c. 721-815), Persia/Iran - pure distillation, liquefaction, purification, retort, mineral acids, nitric and sulfuric acids, hydrochloric acid, aqua regia, alum, alkali, borax, pure sal ammoniac, lead carbonatic, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, pure mercury and sulfur, plated mail Moritz von Jacobi, (1801-1874), Germany/Russia - electrotyping, electric boat Karl Guthe Jansky, (1905-1950), U.S. - radio telescope Karl Jatho, (1873-1933), Germany - aeroplane Al-Jazari, (1136-1206), Iraq - crank-driven and hydropowered saqiya chain pump, crank-driven screw and screwpump, elephant clock, weight-driven clock, weight-driven pump, reciprocating piston suction pump, geared and hydropowered water supply system, programmable humanoid robots, robotics, hand washing automata, flush mechanism, lamination, static balancing, paper model, sand casting, molding sand, intermittency, linkage Ibn Al-Jazzar (Algizar), (c. 898-980), Tunisia - sexual dysfunction and erectile dysfunction treatment drugs Steve Jobs, (1955-2011), U.S. - Apple Macintosh computer, iPod, iPhone, iPad and countless other devices and software operating systems and applications György Jendrassik, (1898-1954), Hungary - turboprop Charles Francis Jenkins, (1867-1934) - television and movie projector (Phantoscope) Carl Edvard Johansson, (1864-1943), Sweden - Gauge blocks Johan Petter Johansson, (1853-1943), Sweden - the pipe wrench and the modern adjustable spanner Nancy Johnson, U.S. - American version of the hand cranked ice cream machine in (1843) Scott A. Jones, (1960-), U.S. - created one of the most successful versions of voicemail as well as ChaCha Search, a human-assisted internet search engine. Whitcomb Judson, (1836-1909), U.S. - zipper K Mikhail Kalashnikov, (1919-), Russia - AK-47 and AK-74 assault rifles (the most produced ever)[1] Dean Kamen, (1951-), U.S. - Invented the Segway HT scooter and the IBOT Mobility Device Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, (1853-1926), Netherlands - liquid helium Nikolay Kamov, (1902-1973), Russia - armored battle autogyro, Ka-series coaxial rotor helicopters Pyotr Kapitsa, (1894-1984), Russia - first ultrastrong magnetic field creating techniques, basic low-temperature physics inventions Georgii Karpechenko, (1899-1941), Russia - rabbage (the first ever non-sterile hybrid obtained through the crossbreeding) Jamshīd al-Kāshī, (c. 1380-1429), Persia/Iran - plate of conjunctions, analog planetary computer Yevgeny Kaspersky, (1965-), Russia - Kaspersky Anti-Virus, Kaspersky Internet Security, Kaspersky Mobile Security anti-virus products Adolphe Kégresse, (1879-1943), France/Russia - Kégresse track (first half-track and first off-road vehicle with continuous track), dual clutch transmission Mstislav Keldysh, (1911-1978), Latvia/Russia - co-developer of Sputnik 1 (the first artificial satellite) together with Korolyov and Tikhonravov John Harvey Kellogg, (1852-1943), cornflake breakfasts John George Kemeny, (1926-1992), Hungary - co-inventor of BASIC Alexander Kemurdzhian, (1921-2003), Russia - first space exploration rover (Lunokhod) Kerim Kerimov, (1917-2003), Azerbaijan and Russia - co-developer of human spaceflight, space dock, space station Charles F. Kettering, (1876-1958), U.S. - invented automobile self-starter ignition, Freon ethyl gasoline and more Kaldi, (fl.9th century), Ethiopia - coffee Fazlur Khan, (1929-1982), Bangladesh - structural systems for high-rise skyscrapers Yulii Khariton, (1904-1996), Russia - chief designer of the Soviet atomic bomb, co-developer of the Tsar Bomb Anatoly Kharlampiev, (1906-1979), Russia - Sambo (martial art) Al-Khazini, (fl.1115-1130), Persia/Iran - hydrostatic balance Konstantin Khrenov, (1894-1984), Russia - underwater welding Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi, (c. 940-1000), Persia/Iran - astronomical sextant Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (Algoritmi), (c. 780-850), Persia/Iran - modern algebra, mural instrument, horary quadrant, Sine quadrant, shadow square Erhard Kietz, (1909-1982), Germany & U.S.A. - signal improvements for video transmissions Erhard Kietz Patents Jack Kilby, (1923-2005), U.S. - patented the first integrated circuit Al-Kindi (Alkindus), (801-873), Iraq/Yemen - ethanol, pure distilled alcohol, cryptanalysis, frequency analysis Fritz Klatte, (1880-1934), Germany - vinyl chloride, forerunner to polyvinyl chloride Margaret E. Knight, (1838-1914), U.S. - machine that completely constructs box-bottom brown paper bags Ivan Knunyants, (1906-1990), Armenia/Russia - capron, Nylon 6, polyamide-6 Robert Koch, (1843-1910), Germany - method for culturing bacteria on solid media Willem Johan Kolff, (1911-2009), Netherlands - artificial kidney hemodialysis machine Rudolf Kompfner, (1909-1977), U.S. - Traveling-wave tube Konstantin Konstantinov, (1817 or 1819-1871), Russia - device for measuring flight speed of projectiles, ballistic rocket pendulum, launch pad, rocket-making machine Sergey Korolyov, (1907-1966), Ukraine/Russia - first successful intercontinental ballistic missile (R-7 Semyorka), R-7 rocket family, Sputniks (including the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite), Vostok program (including the first human spaceflight) Nikolai Korotkov, (1874-1920), Russia - auscultatory technique for blood pressure measurement Semen Korsakov, (1787-1853), Russia - punched card for information storage Mikhail Koshkin, (1898-1940), Russia - T-34 medium tank, the best and most produced tank of World War II[2] Ognjeslav Kostović, (1851-1916), Serbia/Russia - arborite (high-strength plywood, an early plastic) Gleb Kotelnikov, (1872-1944), Russia - knapsack parachute, drogue parachute Alexei Krylov, (1863-1945), Russia - gyroscopic damping of ships Ivan Kulibin, (1735-1818), Russia - egg-shaped clock, candle searchlight, elevator using screw mechanisms, a self-rolling carriage featuring a flywheel, brake, gear box, and bearing, an early optical telegraph Igor Kurchatov, (1903-1960), Russia - first nuclear power plant, first nuclear reactors for submarines and surface ships Raymond Kurzweil, (1948-), Optical character recognition; flatbed scanner Stephanie Kwolek, (1923-), U.S. - Kevlar John Howard Kyan (1774-1850), Ireland - The process of Kyanization used for wood preservation L Dmitry Lachinov, (1842-1902), Russia - mercury pump, economizer for electricity consumption, electrical insulation tester, optical dynamometer, photometer, elecrolyser René Laënnec, (1781-1826), France - stethoscope Lala Balhumal Lahuri, (c. 1842), Mughal India - seamless globe and celestial globe Georges Lakhovsky, (1869-1942), Russia/U.S. - Multiple Wave Oscillator Hedy Lamarr, (1913-2000), Austria and U.S. - Spread spectrum radio Edwin H. Land, (1909-1991), U.S. - Polaroid polarizing filters and the Land Camera Samuel P. Langley, (1834-1906), U.S. - bolometer Irving Langmuir, (1851-1957), U.S. - gas filled incandescent light bulb, hydrogen welding Lewis Latimer, (1848-1928), - Invented the modern day light bulb Gustav de Laval, (1845-1913), Sweden - invented the milk separator and the milking machine Semyon Lavochkin, (1900-1960), Russia - La-series aircraft, first operational surface-to-air missile S-25 Berkut John Bennet Lawes, (1814-1900), England - superphosphate or chemical fertilizer Nikolai Lebedenko, Russia - Tsar Tank, the largest armored vehicle in history Sergei Lebedev, (1874-1934), Russia - commercially viable synthetic rubber Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, (1632-1723), Netherlands - development of the microscope Jean-Joseph Etienne Lenoir, (1822-1900), Belgium - internal combustion engine, motorboat R. G. LeTourneau, (1888-1969), U.S.- electric wheel, motor scraper, mobile oil drilling platform, bulldozer, cable control unit for scrapers Willard Frank Libby, (1908-1980), U.S. - radiocarbon dating Justus von Liebig, (1803-1873), Germany - nitrogen-based fertilizer Otto Lilienthal, (1848-1896), Germany - hang glider Frans Wilhelm Lindqvist, (1862-1931), Sweden - Kerosene stove operated by compressed air Hans Lippershey, (1570-1619), Netherlands - telescope Lisitsyn brothers, Ivan Fyodorovich and Nazar Fyodorovich, Russia - samovar (the first documented makers) William Howard Livens, (1889-1964), England - chemical warfare - Livens Projector. Alexander Lodygin, (1847-1923), Russia - electrical filament, incandescent light bulb with tungsten filament Mikhail Lomonosov, (1711-1765), Russia - night vision telescope, off-axis reflecting telescope, coaxial rotor, re-invented smalt Yury Lomonosov, (1876-1952), Russia/United Kingdom - first successful mainline diesel locomotive Aleksandr Loran, (1849 - after 1911), Russia - fire fighting foam, foam extinguisher Oleg Losev, (1903-1942), Russia - light-emitting diode, crystadine Archibald Low, (1882-1956), Britain - Pioneer of radio guidance systems Auguste and Louis Lumière, France - Cinématographe Gleb Lozino-Lozinskiy, (1909-2001), Russia - Buran (spacecraft), Spiral project Ignacy Łukasiewicz, (1822-1882), Poland - modern kerosene lamp Giovanni Luppis, (1813-1875), Austrian Empire (ethnical Italian) - self-propelled torpedo Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman, (fl.1589-1590), Mughal India - seamless globe and celestial globe Arkhip Lyulka, (1908-1984), Russia - first double jet turbofan engine, other Soviet aircraft engines M Ma Jun, (c. 200-265), China - South Pointing Chariot (see differential gear), mechanical puppet theater, chain pumps, improved silk looms Aleksandr Makarov, Russia/Germany - Orbitrap mass spectrometer Stepan Makarov, (1849-1904), Russia - Icebreaker Yermak, the first true icebreaker able to ride over and crush pack ice Nestor Makhno, (1888-1934), Ukraine/Russia - tachanka Charles Macintosh, (1766-1843), Scotland - waterproof raincoat, life vest Victor Makeev, (1924-1985), Russia - first submarine-launched ballistic missile Dmitri Dmitrievich Maksutov, (1896-1964), Russia - Maksutov telescope Sergey Malyutin, (1859-1937), Russia - designed the first matryoshka doll (together with Vasily Zvyozdochkin) Al-Ma'mun, (786-833), Iraq - singing bird automata, terrestrial globe Boris Mamyrin, (1919-2007), Russia - reflectron (ion mirror) George William Manby, (1765-1854), England - Fire extinguisher Guglielmo Marconi, (1874-1937), Italy - radio telegraphy John Landis Mason, (1826-1902), U.S. - Mason jars Henry Maudslay, (1771-1831), England - screw-cutting lathe, bench micrometer Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili, (9th century), Iraq - syringe, hypodermic needle, cataract extraction, injection, suction Hiram Maxim, (1840-1916), USA born, England - First self-powered machine gun James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) and Thomas Sutton Scotland - color photography Stanley Mazor, (1941-), U.S. - microprocessor John McAdam, (1756-1836), Scotland - improved "macadam" road surface Elijah McCoy, (1843-1929), Canada - Displacement lubricator Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, (1845-1916), Russia - probiotics Hippolyte Mège-Mouriés, (1817-1880), France - margarine Dmitri Mendeleev, (1834-1907), Russia - Periodic table, pycnometer, pyrocollodion, also credited with determining the ideal vodka proof as 38% (later rounded to 40%) Antonio Meucci, (1808-1889), Italy - telephone (prototype) Édouard Michelin, (1859-1940), France - pneumatic tire Anthony Michell, (1870-1959), Australia - tilting pad thrust bearing, crankless engine Artem Mikoyan, (1905-1970), Armenia/Russia - MiG-series fighter aircraft, including world's most produced jet aircraft MiG-15 and most produced supersonic aircraft MiG-21 (together with Mikhail Gurevich) Alexander Mikulin, (1895-1985), Russia - Mikulin AM-34 and other Soviet aircraft engines, co-developer of the Tsar Tank Mikhail Mil, (1909-1970), Russia - Mi-series helicopter aircraft, including Mil Mi-8 (the world's most-produced helicopter) and Mil Mi-12 (the world's largest helicopter) Pavel Molchanov, (1893-1941), Russia - radiosonde Jules Montenier, (c. 1910), U.S. - modern anti-perspirant deodorant Montgolfier brothers, (1740-1810) and (1745-1799), France - hot-air balloon John J. Montgomery, (1858-1911), U.S. - heavier-than-air gliders Narcis Monturiol i Estarriol, (1819-1885), Spain - steam powered submarine Robert Moog, (1934-2005), U.S. - the Moog synthesizer Samuel Morey, (1762-1843), U.S. - internal combustion engine Garrett A. Morgan, (1877-1963), U.S. - inventor of the gas mask, and traffic signal. Samuel Morse, (1791-1872), U.S. - telegraph Alexander Morozov, (1904-1979), Russia - T-54/55 (the most produced tank in history), co-developer of T-34 Sergei Ivanovich Mosin, (1849-1902), Russia - Mosin-Nagant rifle Motorins, Ivan Feodorovich (1660s - 1735) and his son Mikhail Ivanovich (?-1750), Russia - Tsar Bell Vera Mukhina, (1889-1953), Russia - welded sculpture Al-Muqaddasi, (c. 946-1000), Palestine - restaurant Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi, (fl.11th century), Islamic Spain - geared mechanical clock, segmental gear, epicyclic gearing William Murdoch, (1754-1839), Scotland - Gas lighting Jozef Murgas, (1864-1929), Slovakia - inventor of the wireless telegraph (forerunner of the radio) Evgeny Murzin, (1914-1970), Russia - ANS synthesizer Banū Mūsā brothers, Muhammad (c. 800-873), Ahmad (803-873), Al-Hasan (810-873), Iraq - mechanical trick devices, hurricane lamp, self-trimming and self-feeding lamp, gas mask, clamshell grab, fail-safe system, mechanical musical instrument, automatic flute player, programmable machine Pieter van Musschenbroek, (1692-1761), Netherlands - Leyden jar, pyrometer Eadweard Muybridge, (1830-1904), England - motion picture Fe del Mundo,(1941), The Philippines - medical incubator made out of bamboo for use in rural communities without electrical power Alexander Nadiradze, (1914-1987), Georgia/Russia - first mobile ICBM (RT-21 Temp 2S), first reliable mobile ICBM (RT-2PM Topol) John Napier, (1550-1617), Scotland - logarithms James Naismith, (1861-1939), Canadian born, USA - invented basketball and American football helmet Yoshiro Nakamatsu, (b. 1928), Japan - floppy disk, "PyonPyon" spring shoes, digital watch, CinemaScope, armchair "Cerebrex", sauce pump, taxicab meter Andrey Nartov, (1683-1756), Russia - first lathe with a mechanic cutting tool-supporting carriage and a set of gears, fast-fire battery on a rotating disc, screw mechanism for changing the artillery fire angle, gauge-boring lathe for cannon-making, early telescopic sight James Nasmyth, (1808-1890), Scotland - steam hammer Nebuchadrezzar II, (c. 630-562 BC), Iraq (Mesopotamia) - screw, screwpump Ted Nelson, (1937-), USA - Hypertext, Hypermedia Sergey Nepobedimiy, (1921-), Russia - first supersonic anti-tank guided missile Sturm, other Soviet rocket weaponry John von Neumann, (1903-1957), Hungary - Von Neumann computer architecture Isaac Newton,(1642-1727), England - reflecting telescope (which reduces chromatic aberration) Joseph Nicephore Niépce, (1765-1833), France - photography Nikolai Nikitin, (1907-1973), Russia - prestressed concrete with wire ropes structure (Ostankino Tower), Nikitin-Travush 4000 project (precursor to X-Seed 4000) Paul Gottlieb Nipkow, (1860-1940), Germany - Nipkow disk Jun-Ichi Nishizawa, (1926-), Japan - Optical communication system, SIT/SITh (Static Induction Transistor/Thyristor), Laser diode, PIN diode Alfred Nobel, (1833-1896), Sweden - dynamite Ludvig Nobel, (1831-1888), Sweden/Russia - first successful oil tanker Jean-Antoine Nollet, (1700-1770), France - Electroscope Carl Rickard Nyberg, (1858-1939), Sweden - the blowtorch O Theophil Wilgodt Odhner, (1845-1903), Sweden/Russia - the Odhner Arithmometer, a mechanical calculator Ransom Eli Olds, (1864-11950), United States - Assembly line Lucien Olivier, (1838-1883), Belgium or France / Russia - Russian salad (Olivier salad) J. Robert Oppenheimer, (1904-1967), United States - Atomic bomb Edward Otho Cresap Ord, II, (1858-1923) American - weapon sights & mining Hans Christian Ørsted, (1777-1851), Denmark - electromagnetism, aluminium Elisha Otis, (1811-1861), U.S. - passenger elevator with safety device William Oughtred, (1575-1660), England - slide rule Larry Page, (1973-), U.S. - with Sergey Brin invented Google web search engine Alexey Pajitnov, (born 1956), Russia/U.S. - Tetris Helge Palmcrantz, (1842-1880), Sweden - the multi-barrel, lever-actuated, machine gun Daniel David Palmer, (1845-1913), Canada - chiropractic Luigi Palmieri, (1807-1896), Italy - seismometer Alexander Parkes, (1831-1890), England - celluloid Charles Algernon Parsons, (1854-1931), British - steam turbine Spede Pasanen, (1930-2001), Finland - ski jumping sling Blaise Pascal, (1623-1662), France - Pascal's calculator Gustaf Erik Pasch, (1788-1862), Sweden - safety match Les Paul, (1915-2009), U.S. - multitrack recording Nicolae Paulescu, (1869-1931), Romania - insulin Ivan Pavlov, (1849-1936), Russia, - classical conditioning John Pemberton, (1831-1888), U.S. - Coca-Cola Slavoljub Eduard Penkala, (1871-1922), Croatia - mechanical pencil Henry Perky, (1843-1906), U.S. - shredded wheat Stephen Perry, England - rubber band Vladimir Petlyakov, (1891-1942), Russia - heavy bomber Peter Petroff, (1919-2004), Bulgaria - digital wrist watch, heart monitor, weather instruments Fritz Pfleumer, (1881-1945), Germany - magnetic tape Nikolay Ivanovich Pirogov, (1810-1881), Russia - early use of ether as anaesthetic, first anaesthesia in a field operation, various kinds of surgical operations Fyodor Pirotsky, (1845-1898), Russia - electric tram Arthur Pitney, (1871-1933), United States - postage meter Joseph Plateau, (1801-1883), Belgium - phenakistiscope (stroboscope) Baltzar von Platen, (1898-1984), Sweden - gas absorption refrigerator James Leonard Plimpton, U.S. - roller skates Ivan Plotnikov, (1902-1995), Russia - kirza leather Petrache Poenaru, (1799-1875), Romania - fountain pen Christopher Polhem, (1661-1751), Sweden - the modern padlock Nikolai Polikarpov, (1892-1944), Russia - Po-series aircraft, including Polikarpov Po-2 Kukuruznik[disambiguation needed] (world's most produced biplane) Ivan Polzunov, (1728-1766), Russia - first two-cylinder steam engine Mikhail Pomortsev, (1851-1916), Russia - nephoscope Olivia Poole, (1889-1975), U.S., - the Jolly Jumper baby harness Alexander Popov, (1859-1906), Russia - lightning detector (the first lightning prediction system and radio receiver), co-inventor of radio Nikolay Popov, (1931-2008), Russia - first fully gas turbine main battle tank (T-80) Aleksandr Porokhovschikov, (1892-1941), Russia - Vezdekhod (the first prototype tank, or tankette, and the first caterpillar amphibious ATV) Valdemar Poulsen, (1869-1942), Denmark - magnetic wire recorder, arc converter Joseph Priestley, (1733-1804), England - soda water Alexander Procofieff de Seversky, 1894-1974, Russia/United States of America - first gyroscopically stabilized bombsight, ionocraft, also developed air-to-air refueling Alexander Prokhorov, (1916-2002), Russia - co-inventor of laser and maser Petro Prokopovych, (1775-1850), Ukraine/Russia - early beehive frame, queen excluder and other beekeeping novelties Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky, (1863-1944), Russia/France - early colour photography method based on three colour channels, also colour film slides and colour motion pictures George Pullman, (1831-1897), U.S. - Pullman sleep wagon Michael I. Pupin, (1858-1935), Serbia - pupinization (loading coils), tunable oscillator Tivadar Puskas, (1844-1893), Hungary - telephone exchange R Mario Rabinowitz, (1936-), U.S. - solar concentrator with tracking micromirrors Hasan al-Rammah, (fl.1270s), Syria - purified potassium nitrate, explosive gunpowder, torpedo Harun al-Rashid, (763-809), Persia/Iran - public hospital, medical school Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes), (865-965), Persia/Iran - distillation and extraction methods, sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid, soap kerosene, kerosene lamp, chemotherapy, sodium hydroxide Alec Reeves, (1902-1971), UK -- Pulse-code modulation Karl von Reichenbach, (1788-1869), paraffin, creosote oil, phenol Ira Remsen, (1846-1927), U.S. - saccharin Ralf Reski, (* 1958), Germany - Moss bioreactor 1998 Josef Ressel, (1793-1857), Czechoslovakia - ship propeller Charles Francis Richter, (1900-1985), U.S. - Richter magnitude scale Adolph Rickenbacker, (1886-1976), Switzerland - Electric guitar Hyman George Rickover, (1900-1986), U.S. - Nuclear submarine John Roebuck, (1718-1794) England - lead chamber process for sulfuric acid synthesis Heinrich Rohrer, (1933-), Switzerland - with Gerd Binnig, scanning tunneling microscope Peter I the Great (Pyotr Alexeyevich Romanov), Tsar and Emperor of Russia, (1672-1725), Russia - decimal currency, yacht club, sounding line with separating plummet (sounding weight probe) Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, (1845-1923), Germany - the X-ray machine Ida Rosenthal, (1886-1973), Belarus/Russia/United States - modern brassiere (Maidenform), the standard of cup sizes, nursing bra, full-figured bra, the first seamed uplift bra (all with her husband William) Boris Rosing, (1869-1933), Russia - CRT television (first TV system using CRT on the receiving side) Eugene Roshal, (born 1972), Russia - FAR file manager, RAR file format, WinRAR file archiver Ernő Rubik, (1944-), Hungary - Rubik's cube, Rubik's Magic and Rubik's Clock Ernst Ruska, (1906-1988), Germany - electron microscope Alexander Sablukov, (1783-1857), Russia - centrifugal fan Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu, (1385-1468), Turkey - illustrated surgical atlas Andrei Sakharov, (1921-1989), Russia - invented explosively pumped flux compression generator, co-developed the Tsar Bomb and tokamak Ibn Samh, (c. 1020), Middle East - mechanical geared astrolabe Franz San Galli, (1824-1908), Poland/Russia (Italian and German descent) - radiator, modern central heating Alberto Santos-Dumont, (1873-1932), Brazil - non-rigid airship and airplane Arthur William Savage, (1857-1938) - radial tires, gun magazines, Savage Model 99 lever action rifle Thomas Savery, (1650-1715), England - steam engine Adolphe Sax, (1814-1894), Belgium - saxophone Bela Schick, (1877-1967), Hungary - diphtheria test Pavel Schilling, (1780-1836), Estonia/Russia - first electromagnetic telegraph, mine with an electric fuse Masatoshi Shima, (1943-), Japan - microprocessor Christian Schnabel (1878-1936), German - simplistic food cutleries Kees A. Schouhamer Immink (1946- ), Netherlands - Major contributor to development of Compact Disc August Schrader, U.S. - Schrader valve for Pneumatic tire David Schwarz, (1852-1897), Croatia, - rigid ship, later called Zeppelin Marc Seguin, (1786-1875), France - wire-cable suspension bridge Sennacherib, (705-681 BC), Iraq (Mesopotamia) - screw pump Iwan Serrurier, (active 1920s), Netherlands/U.S. - inventor of the Moviola for film editing Mark Serrurier, (190?-1988), U.S. - Serrurier truss for Optical telescopes Gerhard Sessler, (1931-), Germany - foil electret microphone, silicon microphone Guy Severin, (1926-2008), Russia - extra-vehicular activity supporting system Leonty Shamshurenkov, (1687-1758), Russia - first self-propelling carriage (a precursor to both bicycle and automobile), projects of an original odometer and self-propelling sledge Ibn al-Shatir, (1304-1375), Syria - "jewel box" device which combined a compass with a universal sundial Shen Kuo, (1031-1095), China - improved gnomon, armillary sphere, clepsydra[disambiguation needed], and sighting tube Murasaki Shikibu, (c. 973-1025), Japan - novel, psychological novel Pyotr Shilovsky, (1871 - after 1924), Russia/United Kingdom - gyrocar Fathullah Shirazi, (c. 1582), Mughal India - early volley gun William Bradford Shockley, (1910-1989), U.S. - co-inventor of transistor Henry Shrapnel, (1761-1842), England - Shrapnel shell ammunition Vladimir Shukhov, (1853-1939), Russia - thermal cracking (Shukhov cracking process), thin-shell structure, tensile structure, hyperboloid structure, gridshell, modern oil pipeline, cylindric oil depot Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor, (b. 1972), Malaysia - cell growth in outer space, crystallization of proteins and microbes in space Augustus Siebe, (1788-1872), Germany/England - Inventor of the standard diving dress Sir William Siemens, (1823-1883), Germany - regenerative furnace Werner von Siemens, (1816-1892), Germany - an electromechanical "dynamic" Al-Sijzi, (c. 945-1020), Persia/Iran - heliocentric astrolabe Igor Sikorsky, (1889-1972), Russia/U.S. - first four-engine fixed-wing aircraft (Russky Vityaz), first airliner and purpose-designed bomber (Ilya Muromets), modern helicopter, Sikorsky-series helicopters Kia Silverbrook, (1958-), Australia - Memjet printer, world's most prolific inventor Vladimir Simonov, (born 1935), Russia - APS Underwater Assault Rifle, SPP-1 underwater pistol Charles Simonyi, (1948-), Hungary - Hungarian notation Ibn Sina (Avicenna), (973-1037), Persia/Iran - steam distillation, essential oil, pharmacopoeia, clinical pharmacology, clinical trial, randomized controlled trial, quarantine, cancer surgery, cancer therapy, pharmacotherapy, phytotherapy, Hindiba, Taxus baccata L, calcium channel blocker Isaac Singer, (1811-1875), U.S. - sewing machine B. F. Skinner, (1904-1990), U.S. -- Operant conditioning chamber Nikolay Slavyanov, (1854-1897), Russia - shielded metal arc welding Alexander Smakula, (1900-1983), Ukraine/Russia/U.S. - anti-reflective coating Yefim Smolin, Russia - table-glass (stakan granyonyi) Igor Spassky, (1926-), Russia - Sea Launch platform Percy Spencer, (1894-1970), U.S. - microwave oven Elmer Ambrose Sperry, (1860-1930), U.S. - gyroscope-guided automatic pilot Ladislas Starevich, (1882-1965), Russia/France - puppet animation, live-action/animated film Gary Starkweather, (1938-), U.S. - laser printer, color management Boris Stechkin, (1891-1969), Russia - co-developer of Sikorsky Ilya Muromets and Tsar Tank, developer of Soviet heat and aircraft engines George Stephenson, (1781-1848), England - steam railway Simon Stevin, (1548-1620), Netherlands - land yacht Andreas Stihl (1896-1973), Switzerland/Germany - Electric chain saw Reverend Dr Robert Stirling (1790-1878), Scotland - Stirling engine Aurel Stodola, (1859-1942), Slovakia - gas turbines Aleksandr Stoletov, (1839-1896), Russia - first solar cell based on the outer photoelectric effect Levi Strauss, (1829-1902), U.S. - blue jeans John Stringfellow, (1799-1883), England - airplane Almon Strowger, (1839-1902), U.S. - automatic telephone exchange Su Song, (1020-1101), China - first chain drive Pavel Sukhoi, (1895-1975), Russia - Su-series fighter aircraft Simon Sunatori, (1959-), Canada - inventor of MagneScribe and Magic Spicer Sushruta, (600 BC), Vedic India - inventor of Platic Surgery, Cataract Surgery, Rhinoplasty Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi), (903-986), Persia/Iran - timekeeping astrolabe, navigational astrolabe, surveying astrolabe Joseph Swan, (1828-1914), England - Incandescent light bulb Robert Swanson, (1905-1994), Canada - Invented and developed the first multi-chime air horn for use with diesel locomotives Andrei Sychra, (1773-76 - 1850), Lithuania/Russia, Czech descent - Russian seven-string guitar Vladimir Syromyatnikov, (1933-2006), Russia - Androgynous Peripheral Attach System and other spacecraft docking mechanisms Leó Szilárd, (1898-1964), Hungary/U.S. - Co-developed the atomic bomb, patented the nuclear reactor, catalyst of the Manhattan Project

A Vitaly Mikhaylovich Abalakov, (1906-1986), Russia - camming devices, Abalakov thread (or V-thread) gearless ice climbing anchor. Hovannes Adamian, (1879-1932), Armenia/Russia - tricolor principle of the color television Robert Adler, (1913-2007), Austria/United States - wireless remote control Turhan Alçelik (c. 2006), Turkey - non-glaring headlamp Rostislav Alexeyev, (1916-1980) , Russia - Ekranoplan. Mary Anderson, (1866-1953), United States - windshield wiper blade Nicolas Appert, (1749-1841), France - canning (airtight food preservation) Archimedes, (c. 287-212 BC), Greece - Archimedes' screw Ami Argand, (1750-1803), France - Argand lamp Edwin H. Armstrong,(1890-1954), U.S. - FM radio William George Armstrong, (1810-1900), UK - hydraulic crane Neil Arnott, (1788-1874), UK - waterbed Lev Artsimovich, (1909-1973), Russia - Tokamak Al-Ashraf, (fl. 1282-1296), Yemen - dry compass Joseph Aspdin, (1788-1855), England - Portland cement John Vincent Atanasoff, (1903-1995), United States - modern programmable computer [edit] B Charles Babbage, (1791-1871), UK - analytical engine (semi-automatic computer) Roger Bacon, (1214-1292), England - magnifying glass Leo Baekeland, (1863-1944), Belgian-American - Velox photographic paper and Bakelite Ralph H. Baer, (1922-), German born American - video game console Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi, (1162-1231), Iraq/Egypt - ventilator John Logie Baird, (1888-1946), Scotland - an electromechanical television Ibn al-Baitar, (d. 1248), Islamic Spain - three hundred drugs and foods, cancer therapy, pharmacotherapy, Hindiba, pharmacopoeia Abi Bakr of Isfahan, (c. 1235), Persia - mechanical geared astrolabe with lunisolar calendar analog computer Donat Banki, (1859-1922), Hungary - inventor of the carburetor John Bardeen, (1908-1991), U.S. - co-inventor of the transistor Anthony R. Barringer Canadian - American - INPUT (Induced Pulse Transient) airborne electromagnetic system Earl W. Bascom, (1906-1995), Canada and United States - side-delivery rodeo chute, hornless rodeo saddle, rodeo bareback rigging, rodeo chaps Ibn Bassal, (fl. 1038-1075), Islamic Spain - flywheel, flywheel-driven noria, flywheel-driven saqiya chain pump Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī (Albatenius), (853-929), Syria/Turkey - observation tube Eugen Baumann, (1846-1896), Germany - PVC Trevor Baylis, (1937-), UK - a wind-up radio Francis Beaufort, (1774-1857), France - Beaufort scale Arnold O. Beckman, (1900-2004), U.S. - pH meter Ulugh Beg, 1394-1449, |Persia - Fakhri sextant, mural sextant Alexander Graham Bell, (1847-1922), Canada, Scotland, and U.S. - telephone Karl Benz, (1844-1929), Germany - the petrol-powered automobile Emile Berliner, (1851-1929), Germany and U.S. - the disc record gramophone Tim Berners-Lee, (1955-), UK - with Robert Cailliau, the World Wide Web Abu Mansoor Nizar al-Aziz Billah, (955-996), Egypt - airmail, homing pigeon Bi Sheng (Chinese: 畢昇), (ca. 990-1051), China - clay movable type printing Laszlo Biro, (1899-1985), Hungary - modern ballpoint pen Clarence Birdseye, (1886-1956), U.S. - frozen food process Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, (973-1048), Persia - mechanical geared lunisolar calendar analog computer, fixed-wired knowledge processing machine, conical measure, laboratory flask, Orthographical astrolabe, hodometer, pycnometer J. Stuart Blackton, (1875-1941), U.S. - stop-motion film Otto Blathy (1860-1939), Hungary - co-inventor of the transformer, wattmeter, alternating current (AC) and turbogenerator Katharine B. Blodgett, (1898-1979), UK - nonreflective glass Nils Bohlin, (1920-2002), Sweden - the three-point seat belt Joseph-Armand Bombardier, (1907-1964), Canada - snowmobile Jagdish Chandra Bose, (1858 -1937), India - Crescograph Robert W. Bower, (1936-), U.S. - self-aligned-gate MOSFET Seth Boyden, (1788-1870), U.S. - nail-making machine Walter Houser Brattain, (1902-1987), U.S. - co-inventor of the transistor Louis Braille, (1809-1852), France - the Braille writing system Karl Ferdinand Braun, (1850-1918), Germany - cathode-ray tube oscilloscope Harry Brearley, (1871-1948), UK - stainless steel Sergey Brin, (1973-), Russia/U.S. - with Larry Page invented Google web search engine Rachel Fuller Brown, (1898-1980), U.S., Nystatin, the world's first antifungal antibiotic John Moses Browning, (1855-1926), U.S. - automatic handgun Maria Christina Bruhn, (1732-1802) Edwin Beard Budding, (1795-1846), UK - lawnmower Corliss Orville Burandt, U.S. - Variable valve timing [edit] C Robert Cailliau, (1947 -), Belgium - with Tim Berners-Lee, the World Wide Web C`ai Lun, 蔡倫 (50 AD - 121), China - paper Marvin Camras, (1916 - 1995), U.S. - magnetic recording Chester Carlson, (1906 - 1968), U.S. - Xerography Wallace Carothers, (1896 - 1937), U.S. - Nylon Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi, (fl. 1630-1632), long-distance flight, artificial wings Lagari Hasan Çelebi, (fl. 1633-1640), Turkey - manned rocket, artificially-powered aircraft, rocket aircraft Joseph Constantine Carpue, (1764 - 1846), France - rhinoplastic surgery George Cayley, (1773 - 1857), (UK) - glider, tension-spoke wheels, Caterpillar track Roxey Ann Caplin, (1793 - 1888) - Corsets Adriano Cavalcanti, (1971 -), Australia - hardware architecture for nanorobots Dennis Charter, [1] [2] (1952 -), Australia - secure electronic payment system for internet PaySafe Adrian Chernoff, (1971 -), U.S. - GM Autonomy, GM Hy-wire, Rubber Bandits Evgeniy Chertovsky, Russia - Pressure suit Niels Christensen (1865 - 1952), U.S. - O-ring Samuel Hunter Christie, (1784 - 1865), UK - Wheatstone bridge Juan de la Cierva, (1895 - 1936), Spain - the autogyro Alexandru Ciurcu, (1854 - 1922), Romania - Reaction engine Georges Claude, (1870 - 1960), France - neon lamp Henri Coandă, (1886 - 1972), Romania - Jet engine Josephine Cochrane, (1839 - 1913), U.S. - dishwasher Christopher Cockerell, (1910 - 1999), UK - Hovercraft Aeneas Coffey, (1780 - 1852), Ireland - heat exchanger, Coffey still Samuel Colt, (1814 - 1862), U.S. - Revolver George Constantinescu, (1881 - 1965), Romania - Interrupter gear Lloyd Groff Copeman, (1865 - 1956), U.S. - Electric stove Cornelis Corneliszoon, (1550 - 1607), The Netherlands - sawmill Jacques Cousteau, (1910 - 1997), France - co-inventor of the aqualung and the Nikonos underwater camera Thomas Crapper, (1836 - 1910), England - plumber. Bartolomeo Cristofori, (1655 - 1731), Italy - piano János Csonka, (1852 - 1939), Hungary - co-inventor of carburetor Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot, (1725 - 1804), France - first steam-powered road vehicle William Cumberland Cruikshank, (1745 - 1800), UK - chlorinated water William Cullen, (1710 - 1790), UK - first artificial refrigerator Glenn Curtiss, (1878 - 1930), U.S. - ailerons [edit] D Gustaf Dalén, (1869-1937), Sweden - AGA cooker; Dalén light; Agamassan Salvino D'Armate, (?-?), Italy - credited for inventing eyeglasses in 1284 Jacob Davis, (1868-1908), U.S. - riveted jeans Edmund Davy, (1785-1857), Ireland - acetylene Humphry Davy, (1778-1829), UK - Davy miners lamp Joseph Day, (1855-1946), UK - the crankcase-compression two-stroke engine Lee DeForest, (1873-1961), U.S. - triode Miksa Deri (1854-1938), Hungary - co-inventor of an improved closed-core transformer James Dewar, (1842-1923), UK - Thermos flask William Kennedy Laurie Dickson, (1860-1935), UK - motion picture camera Philip Diehl, (1847-1913), U.S. - Ceiling fan, electric sewing machine Rudolf Diesel, (1858-1913), Germany - Diesel engine Taqi al-Din, (1526-1585), Syria/Egypt/Turkey - steam turbine, smoke jack, six-cylinder 'Monobloc' suction pump, mechanical alarm clock, spring-powered pocket watch measured in minutes, spring-powered astronomical clock measured in minutes and seconds, framed sextant Al-Dinawari, (828-896), Persia - more than a hundred plant drugs William H. Dobelle, (1943-2004), United States - first functioning artificial eye Bryan Donkin, (1768-1855), UK - print industry composition roller Hub van Doorne, (1900-1979), Netherlands, Variomatic continuously variable transmission Anastase Dragomir, (1896-1966), Romania - Ejection seat Karl Drais, (1785-1851), Germany - dandy horse (Draisine) Cornelius Drebbel, (1572-1633), The Netherlands - first navigable submarine Richard Drew, (1899-1980), U.S. - Masking tape John Boyd Dunlop, (1840-1921) UK - first practical pneumatic tyre James Dyson, (1947- ) UK - Dual Cyclone bagless vacuum cleaner, incorporating the principles of cyclonic separation. [edit] E George Eastman, (1854-1932), U.S. - roll film Thomas Edison, (1847-1931), U.S. - phonograph, commercially practical light bulb, motion picture projector, stock ticker, etc Willem Einthoven, (1860-1927), The Netherlands - the electrocardiogram Rune Elmqvist, (1857-1924), Sweden - implantable pacemaker Douglas Engelbart, (1925-), U.S. - the computer mouse [3] John Ericsson, (1803-1889), Sweden - the two screw-propeller Lars Magnus Ericsson, (1846-1926), Sweden - the handheld micro telephone Ole Evinrude, (1877-1934), Norway - outboard motor [edit] F Samuel Face, (1923-2001), U.S. - concrete flatness/levelness technology; Lightning Switch Michael Faraday, (1791-1867), England - electric transformer Johann Maria Farina, (1685-1766), Germany; Eau de Cologne Philo Farnsworth, (1906-1971), U.S. - electronic television Muhammad al-Fazari, (d. 796/806), Iraq or Persia - brass astrolabe Svyatoslav Fyodorov, (1927-2000), Russia - radial keratotomy James Fergason, (1934-), U.S. - improved liquid crystal display Enrico Fermi, (1901-1954), Italy - nuclear reactor Humberto Fernández Morán, (1924-1999), Venezuela - Diamond scalpel, Ultra microtome Reginald Fessenden, (1866-1932), Canada - two-way radio Adolf Eugen Fick, (1829-1901), Germany - contact lens Fatima al-Fihri, (c. 859), Tunisia/Morocco - university Abbas Ibn Firnas (Armen Firman), (810-887), Islamic Spain - eye glasses, parachute, hang glider, artificial wings, controlled flight, watch, fused quartz and silica glass, artificial thunder and lightning, metronome Artur Fischer, (1919-) Germany - fasteners including fischertechnik. Gerhard Fischer, Germany/U.S. - hand-held metal detector Alexander Fleming, (1881-1955), Scotland - penicillin John Ambrose Fleming, (1848-1945), England - vacuum diode Sandford Fleming, (1827-1915), Canada - Universal Standard Time Tommy Flowers, (1905-1998), England - Colossus an early electronic computer. Jean Bernard Léon Foucault, (1819-1868), France - Foucault pendulum, gyroscope, eddy current Benoît Fourneyron, (1802-1867), France - water turbine John Fowler, (1826-1864), England - steam-driven ploughing engine Benjamin Franklin, (1706-1790), U.S. - the pointed lightning rod conductor, bifocal glasses, the Franklin stove, the glass harmonica Augustin-Jean Fresnel, (1788-1827), France - Fresnel lens William Friese-Greene, (1855-1921), England - cinematography Buckminster Fuller, (1895-1983), U.S. - geodesic dome [edit] G Dennis Gabor, (1900-1979), Hungary - holography Boris Borisovich Galitzine, (1862-1916), Russia - Electromagnetic seismograph. Elmer R. Gates, (1859-1923), USA - foam fire extinguisher, electric loom mechanisms, magnetic & diamagnetic separators, educational toy ("box & blocks") Richard J. Gatling, (1818-1903), U.S. - wheat drill, first successful machine gun Hans Wilhelm Geiger, (1882-1945), Germany - Geiger counter Henri Giffard, (1825-1882), France - powered airship, injector Heinrich Göbel, (1818-1893), Germany - first functional incandescent lamp Leonid Gobyato, (1875-1915), Russia - first modern man-portable mortar Robert Goddard, (1882-1945), U.S. - liquid fuel rocket Peter Carl Goldmark, (1906-1977), Hungary - vinyl record (LP), CBS color television Charles Goodyear, (1800-1860), U.S. - vulcanization of rubber Gordon Gould, (1920-2005), U.S. - co-inventor of laser Richard Hall Gower, (1768-1833), England - ship's hull and rigging Bette Nesmith Graham, (1924-1980), U.S. - Liquid Paper James Henry Greathead, (1844-1896), South Africa - tunnel boring machine, tunnelling shield technique Chester Greenwood, (1858-1937), U.S. - thermal earmuffs James Gregory, (1638-1675), Scotland - Gregorian telescope William Robert Grove, (1811-1896), Wales - fuel cell Otto von Guericke, (1602-1686), Germany - vacuum pump, manometer, dasymeter Hakan Gürsu, (c. 2007), Turkey - Volitan Johann Gutenberg, (c. 1390s-1468), Germany - movable type printing press Samuel Guthrie, (1782-1848), U.S. - discovered chloroform [edit] H John Hadley, (1682-1744), England - Octant Waldemar Haffkine, (1860-1930), Russia/Switzerland - first anti-cholera and anti-plague vaccines Tracy Hall, (1919-2008 ), U.S. - synthetic diamond Christopher Hansteen, (1783-1873), Norway - discovery of terrestrial magnetism James Hargreaves, (1720-1778), England - spinning jenny John Harrison, (1693-1776), England - marine chronometer Victor Hasselblad, (1906-1978), Sweden - invented the 6 x 6 cm single-lens reflex camera Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), (965-1039), Iraq - camera obscura, pinhole camera, magnifying glass, concave and convex mirrors, spherical mirror Robert A. Heinlein, (1907-1988), U.S. - waterbed Jozef Karol Hell, (1713-1789), Slovakia - the water pillar Rudolf Hell, (1901-2002), Germany - the Hellschreiber Joseph Henry, (1797-1878), Scotland/U.S. - electromagnetic relay Heron, (c. 10-70), Roman Egypt - aeolipile Heinrich Hertz, (1857-1894), Germany - radio telegraphy, electromagnetic radiation George de Hevesy, (1885-1966), Hungary - radioactive tracer Rowland Hill, (1795-1879), UK - postage stamp Felix Hoffmann (Bayer), (1868-1949), Germany - Aspirin Herman Hollerith, (1860-1929), U.S. - recording data on a machine readable medium, tabulator, punched cards Nick Holonyak, (1928- ), U.S. - LED (Light Emitting Diode) Robert Hooke, (1635-1703), England - balance wheel, iris diaphragm Erna Schneider Hoover, (1926-), U.S. - computerized telephone switching system Frank Hornby, (1863-1936), England - invented Meccano Coenraad Johannes van Houten, (1801-1887), Netherlands - cocoa powder, cacao butter, chocolate milk Elias Howe, (1819-1867), U.S. - sewing machine Muhammad Husayn, (fl. 1600s), Persia - cartographic Qibla indicator with sundial and compass Christiaan Huygens, (1629-1695), Netherlands - pendulum clock John Wesley Hyatt, (1837-1920), U.S. - celluloid manufacturing [edit] I Ibn Yunus, (950-1009), Egypt - pendulum Sumio Iijima, (1939- ), Japan - nanotubes Gavriil Ilizarov, (1921-1992), Russia - Ilizarov apparatus and distraction osteogenesis. János Irinyi, (1817-1895), Hungary - noiseless match [edit] J Jabir ibn Aflah (Geber), (c. 1100-1150), Islamic Spain - portable celestial globe Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), (c. 721-815), Yemen/Persia - pure distillation, calcination, crystallization, filtration, liquefaction, purification, alembic, still, retort, mineral acids, nitric and sulfuric acids, uric and hydrochloric acids, aqua regia, alum, alkali, borax, pure sal ammoniac, lead carbonatic, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, pure mercury and sulfur, plated mail, artificial pearl and gemstone, lusterware Karl Jatho, (1873-1933), Germany - aeroplane Al-Jazari, (1136-1206), Iraq - crank-driven and hydropowered saqiya chain pump, crank-driven screw and screwpump, elephant clock, weight-driven clock, weight-driven pump, reciprocating piston suction pump, geared and hydropowered water supply system, programmable humanoid robots, robotics, hand washing automata, flush mechanism, lamination, static balancing, paper model, sand casting, molding sand, intermittency, linkage Ibn Al-Jazzar (Algizar), (c. 898-980), Tunisia - sexual dysfunction and erectile dysfunction treatment drugs György Jendrassik, (1898-1954), Hungary - turboprop Carl Edvard Johansson, (1864-1943), Sweden - Gauge blocks Johan Petter Johansson, (1853-1943), Sweden - the pipe wrench and the modern adjustable spanner Nancy Johnson, U.S. - American version of the hand cranked ice cream machine in (1843) Scott A. Jones, (1960-), U.S. - created one of the most successful versions of voicemail as well as ChaCha Search, a human-assisted internet search engine. Whitcomb Judson, (1836-1909), U.S. - zipper [edit] K Mikhail Kalashnikov, (1919-), Russia - AK-47 and AK-74 assault rifles Dean Kamen, (1951-), U.S. - Invented the Segway HT scooter and the IBOT Mobility Device Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, (1853-1926), Netherlands - liquify helium Jamshīd al-Kāshī, (c. 1380-1429), Persia - plate of conjunctions, analog planetary computer Abu 'Abdullah Muhammad ibn Naser ibn Saghir ibn Khalid al-Kaysarani, (c. 1154), Syria - striking clock, clock tower John Harvey Kellogg, (1852-1943), cornflake breakfasts John George Kemeny, (1926-1992), Hungary - co-inventor of BASIC Alexander Kemurdzhian, (1921-2003), Russia - first space exploration rover (Lunokhod) Kerim Kerimov, (1917-2003), Azerbaijan and Russia - human spaceflight, space dock, space station Charles F. Kettering, (1876-1958), U.S. - invented automobile self-starter ignition, Freon ethyl gasoline and more Khalid, (fl. 800s), Ethiopia - coffee Fazlur Khan, (1929-1982), Bangladesh - structural systems for high-rise skyscrapers Al-Khazini, (fl. 1115-1130), Persia - hydrostatic balance Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi, (c. 940-1000), Persia - astronomical sextant Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (Algoritmi), (c. 780-850), Persia - modern algebra, mural instrument, quadrant, horary quadrant, sine quadrant, Quadrans Vetus, shadow square Jack Kilby, (1923-2005), U.S. - patented the first integrated circuit Al-Kindi (Alkindus), (801-873), Iraq/Yemen - ethanol, pure distilled alcohol, cryptanalysis, frequency analysis Fritz Klatte, (1880-1934), Germany - vinyl chloride, forerunner to polyvinyl chloride Margaret E. Knight, (1838-1914), U.S. - machine that completely constructs box-bottom brown paper bags Ivan Knunyants, (1906-1990), Armenia/Russia - invented Nylon-6 Robert Koch, (1843-1910), Germany - method for culturing bacteria on solid media Willem Johan Kolff, (1911-2009), Netherlands - artificial kidney hemodialysis machine Rudolf Kompfner, (1909-1977), U.S. - Traveling-wave tube Sergey Korolyov, (1907-1966), Ukraine/Russia - invented R-7 rocket family, designed Sputniks (including first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite), supervised Vostok program (including first human spaceflight) Gleb Kotelnikov, (1872-1944), Russia - knapsack parachute Ivan Kulibin, (1735-1818), Russia - Elevator using screw mechanisms. Also invented an automobile that featured a flywheel, brake, gear box, and bearing.[1] Igor Kurchatov, (1903-1960), Russia - first nuclear power plant, first nuclear reactors for submarines and surface ships Raymond Kurzweil, (1948-), Optical character recognition; flatbed scanner Stephanie Kwolek, (1923-), U.S. - Kevlar John Howard Kyan (1774-1850), Ireland - The process of Kyanization used for wood preservation [edit] L René Laënnec, (1781-1826), France - stethoscope Lala Balhumal Lahuri, (c. 1842), Mughal India - seamless globe and celestial globe, lost-wax casting Georges Lakhovsky, (1869-1942), Russia - Multiple Wave Oscillator. Hedy Lamarr, (1913-2000), Austria and U.S. - Spread spectrum radio Edwin H. Land, (1909-1991), U.S. - Polaroid polarizing filters and the Land Camera Samuel P. Langley, (1834-1906), U.S. - bolometer Irving Langmuir, (1851-1957), U.S. - gas filled incandescent light bulb, hydrogen welding Lewis Latimer, (1848-1928), - worked with Thomas Edison and patented an improved lightbulb manufacturing process Gustav de Laval, (1845-1913), Sweden - invented the milk separator and the milking machine John Bennet Lawes, (1814-1900), England - superphosphate or chemical fertilizer Sergei Vasiljevich Lebedev, (1874-1934), Russia - synthetic rubber Tim Berners-Lee, (1955- ) England - World Wide Web Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, (1632-1723), Netherlands - development of the microscope Jean-Joseph Etienne Lenoir, (1822-1900), Belgium - internal combustion engine, motorboat R. G. LeTourneau, (1888-1969), U.S.- electric wheel, motor scraper, mobile oil drilling platform, bulldozer, cable control unit for scrapers Willard Frank Libby, (1908-1980), U.S. - radiocarbon dating Justus von Liebig, (1803-1873), Germany - nitrogen-based fertilizer Otto Lilienthal, (1848-1896), Germany - hang glider Frans Wilhelm Lindqvist, (1862-1931), Sweden - Kerosene stove operated by compressed air Hans Lippershey, (1570-1619), Netherlands - telescope William Howard Livens, (1889-1964), England - chemical warfare - Livens Projector. Alexander Lodygin, (1847-1923), Russia - Electrical filament, incandescent light bulb with tungsten filament. Oleg Losev, (1903-1942), Russia - Light-emitting diode. Archibald Low, (1882-1956), Britain - Pioneer of radio guidance systems Auguste and Louis Lumière, France - Cinématographe Ignacy Łukasiewicz, (1822-1882), Poland - modern kerosene lamp Giovanni Luppis, (1813-1875), Austrian Empire (ethnical Italian) - self-propelled torpedo Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman, (fl. 1589-1590), Mughal India - seamless globe and celestial globe, lost-wax casting [edit] M Ma Jun, (c. 200-265), China - South Pointing Chariot (see differential gear), mechanical puppet theater, chain pumps, improved silk looms Charles Macintosh, (1766-1843), Scotland - waterproof raincoat, life vest Sake Dean Mahomet, (c. 1759), India - shampoo Dmitri Dmitrievich Maksutov, (1896-1964), Russia - Maksutov telescope Al-Ma'mun, (786-833), Iraq - singing bird automata, terrestrial globe George William Manby, (1765-1854), England - Fire extinguisher Guglielmo Marconi, (1874-1937), Italy - radio telegraphy John Landis Mason, (1826-1902), U.S. - Mason jars Henry Maudslay, (1771-1831), England - screw-cutting lathe, bench micrometer Hiram Maxim, (1840-1916), USA born, England - First self-powered machine gun James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) and Thomas Sutton Scotland - colour photography Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili, (9th century), Iraq - syringe, hypodermic needle, cataract extraction, injection, suction John McAdam, (1756-1836), Scotland - improved "macadam" road surface Elijah McCoy, (1843-1929), Canada - Displacement lubricator Hippolyte Mège-Mouriés, (1817-1880), France - margarine Dmitri Mendeleev, (1834-1907), Russia - Periodic table, pyrocollodion. Antonio Meucci, (1808-1889), Italy - telephone (prototype) Edouard Michelin, (1859-1940), France - pneumatic tyre Anthony Michell, (1870 - 1959), Australia - tilting pad thrust bearing, crankless engine Pavel Molchanov, (1893-1941), Russia - Radiosonde. Jules Montenier, (c. 1910), U.S. - modern anti-perspirant deodorant Montgolfier brothers, (1740-1810) and (1745-1799), France - hot-air balloon John J. Montgomery, (1858-1911), U.S. - heavier-than-air gliders Narcis Monturiol i Estarriol, (1819-1885), Spain - steam powered submarine Robert Moog, (1934-2005), U.S. - the Moog synthesizer Samuel Morey, (1762-1843), U.S. - internal combustion engine Garrett A. Morgan, (1877-1963), U.S. - inventor of the gas mask, and traffic signal. Samuel Morse, (1791-1872), U.S. - telegraph Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi, (fl. 1000s), Islamic Spain - geared mechanical clock, segmental gear, epicyclic gearing William Murdoch, (1754-1839), Scotland - Gas lighting Jozef Murgas, (1864-1929), Slovakia - inventor of the wireless telegraph (forerunner of the radio) Al-Muqaddasi, (c. 946-1000), Palestine - restaurant Banū Mūsā brothers, Muhammad (c. 800-873), Ahmad (803-873), Al-Hasan (810-873), Iraq - valve, float valve, feedback controller, automatic control, float chamber, mechanical trick devices, hurricane lamp, self-trimming and self-feeding lamp, gas mask, grab, clamshell grab, fail-safe system, mechanical musical instrument, automatic flute player, programmable machine Pieter van Musschenbroek, (1692-1761), Netherlands - Leyden jar, pyrometer [edit] N Ibn al-Nafis, (1213-1288), Syria/Egypt - circulatory physiology, otolaryngology, theological novel, science fiction novel John Napier, (1550-1617), Scotland - logarithms James Naismith, (1861-1939), Canadian born, USA - invented basketball and American football helmet Yoshiro Nakamatsu, (b. 1928), Japan - floppy disk, "PyonPyon" spring shoes, digital watch, CinemaScope, armchair "Cerebrex", sauce pump, taxicab meter James Nasmyth, (1808-1890), Scotland - steam hammer Nebuchadrezzar II, (c. 630-562 BC), Iraq (Mesopotamia) - screw, screwpump John von Neumann, (1903-1957), Hungary - Von Neumann computer architecture Isaac Newton,(1642-1727), England - reflecting telescope (which reduces chromatic aberration) Joseph Nicephore Niépce, (1765-1833), France - photography Jun-Ichi Nishizawa, (1926-), Japan - Optical communication system, SIT/SITh (Static Induction Transistor/Thyristor), Laser diode, PIN diode Alfred Nobel, (1833-1896), Sweden - dynamite Carl Rickard Nyberg, (1858-1939), Sweden - the blowtorch [edit] O Theophil Wilgodt Odhner, (1845-1903), Sweden - the Odhner Arithmometer, a mechanical calculator J. Robert Oppenheimer, (1904-1967), United States - Atomic bomb Hans Christian Ørsted, (1777-1851), Denmark - electromagnetism, aluminium Elisha Otis, (1811-1861), U.S. - passenger elevator with safety device William Oughtred, (1575-1660), England - slide rule [edit] P Larry Page, (1973-), U.S. - with Sergey Brin invented Google web search engine Helge Palmcrantz, (1842-1880), Sweden - the multi-barrel, lever-actuated, machine gun Daniel David Palmer, (1845-1913), Canada - Chiropractic Luigi Palmieri, (1807-1896), Italy - seismometer Alexander Parkes, (1831-1890), England - celluloid Charles Algernon Parsons, (1854-1931), British - steam turbine Spede Pasanen, (1930-2001), Finland - The ski jumping sling Blaise Pascal, (1623-1662), France - barometer Les Paul, (1915-), U.S. - Multitrack recording Nicolae Paulescu, (1869 - 1931), Romania - Insulin Gustaf Erik Pasch, (1788-1862), Sweden - the safety match Arthur Paul Pedrick, England - chromatically selective cat flap and others John Pemberton, (1831-1888), U.S. - Coca-Cola Slavoljub Eduard Penkala, (1871-1922), Croatia - mechanical pencil Henry Perky, (1843-1906), U.S. - Shredded wheat Stephen Perry, England - rubber band Peter Petroff, (1919-2004), Bulgaria - digital wrist watch, heart monitor, weather instruments Fritz Pfleumer, (1881-1945), Germany - Magnetic Tape Arthur Pitney, (1871-1933), United States - Postage meter Joseph Plateau, (1801-1883), Belgium - phenakistiscope (stroboscope) Baltzar von Platen, (1898-1984), Sweden - refrigerator James Leonard Plimpton, U.S. - roller skates Petrache Poenaru, (1799 - 1875), Romania - Fountain pen Christopher Polhem, (1661-1751), Sweden - the modern padlock Ivan Polzunov, (1728-1766), Russia - first two-cylinder motor Olivia Poole, (1889-1975), U.S., - the Jolly Jumper baby harness Alexander Stepanovich Popov, (1859-1906), Russia - Lightning detector. George Pullman, (1831-1897), U.S. - Pullman sleep wagon Michael I. Pupin, (1858-1935), Serbia - pupinization (loading coils), tunable oscillator Tivadar Puskas, (1844-1893), Hungary - telephone exchange [edit] R Mario Rabinowitz, (1936-), U.S. - solar concentrator with tracking micromirrors Hasan al-Rammah, (fl. 1270s), Syria - purified potassium nitrate, explosive gunpowder, torpedo Harun al-Rashid, (763-809), Iraq/Persia - public hospital, medical school Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes), (865-965), Persia - distillation and extraction methods, sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid, soap, kerosene, kerosene lamp, chemotherapy, red lead, copper acetate, lead sulfide, zinc oxide, bismuth oxide, iron acetate, cinnabar, arsenic trioxide, sodium hydroxide, aludel, rose water, heated bath, funnel, sieve Karl von Reichenbach, (1788-1869), paraffin, creosote oil, phenol Ira Remsen, (1846-1927), U.S. - saccharin Ralf Reski, (* 1958), Germany - Moss Bioreactor 1998 Josef Ressel, (1793-1857), Czechoslovakia - ship propeller Charles Francis Richter, (1900-1985), U.S. - Richter magnitude scale Hyman George Rickover, (1900-1986), U.S. - Nuclear submarine John Roebuck, (1718-1794) England - lead chamber process for sulfuric acid synthesis Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, (1845-1923), Germany - the X-ray machine Ernő Rubik, (1944-), Hungary - Rubik's cube, Rubik's Magic and Rubik's Clock Ernst Ruska, (1906-1988), Germany - electron microscope [edit] S Alexander Sablukov, (1783-1857), Russia - centrifugal fan Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu, (1385-1468), Turkey - illustrated surgical atlas Andrei Sakharov, (1921-1989), Russia - invented explosively pumped flux compression generator, developed tokamaks for controlled nuclear fusion Ibn Samh, (c. 1020), Middle East - mechanical geared astrolabe Ibn Sina (Avicenna), (973-1037), Persia - thermometer, thermoscope, steam distillation, essential oil, pharmacopoeia, clinical pharmacology, clinical trial, randomized controlled trial, quarantine, cancer surgery, cancer therapy, pharmacotherapy, phytotherapy, Hindiba, Taxus baccata L, calcium channel blocker Alberto Santos-Dumont, (1873-1932), Brazil - non-rigid airship and airplane Thomas Savery, (1650-1715), England - steam engine Adolphe Sax, (1814-1894), Belgium - saxophone Bela Schick, (1877-1967), Hungary - diphtheria test Christian Schnabel (1878-1936), German - simplistic food cutleries Kees A. Schouhamer Immink (1946- ), Netherlands - Major contributor to development of Compact Disc August Schrader, U.S. - Schrader valve for Pneumatic tire David Schwarz, (1852-1897), Croatia, - rigid ship, later called Zeppelin Marc Seguin, (1786-1875), France - wire-cable suspension bridge Sennacherib, (705-681 BC), Iraq (Mesopotamia) - screw pump Iwan Serrurier, (active 1920s), Netherlands/U.S. - inventor of the Moviola for film editing. Mark Serrurier, (190?-1988), U.S. - Serrurier truss for Optical telescopes Gerhard Sessler, (1931-), Germany - foil electret microphone, silicon microphone Alexander Procofieff de Seversky, 1894-1974, Russia/United States of America - Air-to-air refueling Ibn al-Shatir, (1304-1375), Syria - astrolabic clock, compendium instrument, polar-axis sundial, compass dial Shen Kuo, (1031-1095), China - improved gnomon, armillary sphere, clepsydra, and sighting tube Pavel Schilling, (1780-1836), Estonia/Russia - first electromagnetic telegraph Murasaki Shikibu, (c. 973-1025), - novel, psychological novel Fathullah Shirazi, (c. 1582), Mughal India - autocannon, multi-barrel gun Al-Sijzi, (c. 945-1020), Persia - heliocentric astrolabe William Bradford Shockley, (1910-1989), U.S. - co-inventor of transistor Henry Shrapnel, (1761-1842), England - Shrapnel shell ammunition Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor, (b. 1972), Malaysia - cell growth in outer space, crystallization of proteins and microbes in space Vladimir Shukhov, (1853-1939), Russia - Shukhov cracking process, thin-shell structure, tensile structure, built one of the first pipelines Augustus Siebe, (1788-1872), Germany/England - Inventor of the standard diving dress Werner von Siemens, (1816-1892), Germany - an electromechanical "dynamic" Sir William Siemens, (1823-1883), Germany - regenerative furnace Igor Sikorsky, (1889-1972), Russia/U.S. - helicopter Charles Simonyi, (1948-), Hungary - Hungarian notation Isaac Singer, (1811-1875), U.S. - sewing machine Elmer Ambrose Sperry, (1860-1930), U.S. - gyroscope-guided automatic pilot George Stephenson, (1781-1848), England - steam locomotive Simon Stevin, (1548-1620), Netherlands - land yacht Aurel Stodola, (1859-1942), Slovakia - gas turbines Reverend Dr Robert Stirling (1790-1878), Scotland - Stirling engine Levi Strauss, (1829-1902), U.S. - blue jeans John Stringfellow, (1799-1883), England - airplane Almon Strowger, (1839-1902), U.S. - automatic telephone exchange Su Song, (1020-1101), China - first chain drive Simon Sunatori, (1959-), Canada - inventor of MagneScribe and Magic Spicer Sushruta, (600 BC), Vedic India - inventor of Platic Surgery, Cataract Surgery, Rhinoplasty Joseph Swan, (1828-1914), England - Incandescent light bulb Percy Spencer, (1894-1970), U.S. - microwave oven Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi), (903-986), Persia - timekeeping astrolabe, navigational astrolabe, surveying astrolabe Robert Swanson, (1905-1994), Canada - Invented and developed the first multi-chime air horn for use with diesel locomotives Leó Szilárd, (1898-1964), Hungary/U.S. - Co-developed the atomic bomb, patented the nuclear reactor, catalyst of the Manhattan Project [edit] T Salih Tahtawi, (fl. 1659-1660), Mughal India - seamless globe and celestial globe, lost-wax casting Igor Tamm, (1895-1971), Russia - with Andrey Sakharov, developed first tokamak Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi, (c. 1187), Middle East - counterweight trebuchet, mangonel Bernard Tellegen, (1900-1990), Netherlands - pentode Edward Teller, (1908-2003), Hungary - hydrogen bomb Nikola Tesla, (1856-1943), Serbian-Croatian-American - Tesla Coil, induction motor, wireless communication Eric Tigerstedt, (1887-1925), Finland - triode vacuum tube Kalman Tihanyi, (1897-1947), Hungary - co-inventor of cathode ray tube and iconoscope Benjamin Chew Tilghman, (1821-1897), U.S. - sandblasting Tipu Sultan, (1750-1799), India - iron-cased and metal-cylinder rocket Alfred Traeger, (1895-1980), Australia - the pedal radio Franc Trkman, (1903-1978), Slovenia - electrical switches, accessories for opening windows Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, (1857-1935), Russia - spaceflight Mikhail Tsvet, (1872-1919), Russia - adsorption chromatography Ibn Tufail, (c. 1105-1185), Islamic Spain - philosophical novel Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, (1201-1274), Persia - observatory, research institute Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī, (1135-1213), Persia - linear astrolabe [edit] U Lewis Urry, (1927-2004), Canada - long-lasting alkaline battery [edit] V Theophilus Van Kannel, (1841-1919), United States - revolving door (1888) Louis R. Vitullo, (1924?-2006), United States - developed the first sexual assault evidence kit Alessandro Volta, (1745-1827), Italy - battery Faust Vrančić, (1551-1617), Croatia - parachute [edit] W Barnes Wallis, (1887-1979), England - bouncing bomb Robert Watson-Watt, (1892-1973), Scotland - microwave radar James Watt, (1736-1819), Scotland - improved Steam engine Thomas Wedgwood, (1771-1805), England - first (not permanent) photograph Jonas Wenström, (1855-1893), Sweden - three-phase electrical power George Westinghouse, (1846-1914), U.S. - Air brake (rail) Charles Wheatstone, (1802-1875), England - concertina, stereoscope, microphone, Playfair cipher Eli Whitney, (1765-1825), U.S. - the cotton gin Frank Whittle, (1907-1996), England - co-inventor of the jet engine Otto Wichterle, (1913-1989), Czechoslovakia - invented modern contact lenses Paul Winchell, (1922-2005), U.S. - the artificial heart A. Baldwin Wood, (1879-1956), U.S. - high volume pump Granville Woods, (1856-1910), U.S. - the Synchronous Multiplex Railway Telegraph Wright brothers, Orville (1871-1948) and Wilbur (1867-1912) - U.S. - powered airplane Arthur Wynne, (1862-1945), England - creator of crossword puzzle [edit] Y Pavel Yablochkov, (1847-1894), Russia - Yablochkov candle. Hidetsugu Yagi, (1886-1976), Japan - Yagi antenna Khalid ibn Yazid, (635-704), Syria/Egypt - potassium nitrate Yi Xing, (683-727), China Arthur M. Young, (1905-1995), U.S. - the Bell Helicopter Muhammad Yunus, (b. 1940), Bangladesh - microcredit, microfinance Abu Yaqub Yusuf, (c. 1274), Morocco/Spain - siege cannon [edit] Z Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis), (936 - 1013), Islamic Spain - cosmetic dentistry, tooth bleaching, hair care, hair dye, solid lipstick, Hand cream and lotion, suntan lotion,[disambiguation needed] roll-on deodorant, epilepsy and seizure medications, nasal spray, topical cream, adhesive bandage and plaster, bone saw, catgut, cotton dressing and bandage, curette, retractor, sound, surgical spoon, surgical hook and rod, ligature Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Arzachel), (1028-1087), Islamic Spain - almanac, equatorium, universal astrolabe Nikolay Zelinsky, (1861-1953), Russia - the first effective filtering coal gas mask in the world Zhang Heng, (78-139), China - invented the first hydraulic-powered armillary sphere Zheng He, (1371-1433), China - treasure ship Ziryab, (789-857), Iraq/Syria/Tunisia/Spain - bangs, beauty parlour, cosmetology school, chemical depilatory, toothpaste, under-arm deodorant, three-course meal Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar), (1091-1161), Islamic Spain - general anaesthesia, general anaesthetic, oral anesthesia, inhalational anaesthetic, narcotic-soaked sponge, tracheotomy, parasitology, pharmacopoeia Konrad Zuse, (22. June 1910 - 18. December 1995), Germany - invented the first Computer (Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4) Vladimir Zworykin, (1889-1982), Russia/U.S. - Iconoscope, kinescope.

A * Bruno Abakanowicz, (1852-1900), Poland/Lithuania/Russia/France - Integraph, spirograph, parabolagraph * Vitaly Abalakov, (1906-1986), Russia - camming devices, Abalakov thread (or V-thread) gearless ice climbing anchor * Hovannes Adamian, (1879-1932), Armenia/Russia - tricolor principle of the color television * Robert Adler, (1913-2007), Austria/United States - wireless remote control * Turhan Alçelik (c. 2006), Turkey - non-glaring headlamp * Anatoly Alexandrov, (1903-1994), Russia - anti-mine demagnetising of ships, naval nuclear reactors (including one for the first nuclear icebreaker) * Alexandre Alexeieff, (1901-1982) Russia/France - pinscreen animation (with his wife Claire Parker) * Rostislav Alexeyev, (1916-1980), Russia - ekranoplan * Zhores Alferov, (1930), Russia - heterotransistor, continuous-wave-operating diode laser (together with Dmitri Garbuzov) * Genrich Altshuller, (1926-1998), Russia - TRIZ ("The Theory of Solving Inventor's Problems") * Mary Anderson, (1866-1953), United States - windshield wiper blade * Vasily Andreyev, (1861-1918), Russia - standard balalaika * Oleg Antonov, (1906-1984), Russia - An-series aircraft, including A-40 winged tank and An-124 (the largest serial cargo, later modified to world's largest fixed-wing aircraft An-225) * Nicolas Appert, (1749-1841), France - canning (airtight food preservation) * Archimedes, (c. 287-212 BC), Greece - Archimedes' screw * Ami Argand, (1750-1803), France - Argand lamp * Edwin H. Armstrong,(1890-1954), U.S. - FM radio * William George Armstrong, (1810-1900), UK - hydraulic crane * Neil Arnott, (1788-1874), UK - waterbed * Lev Artsimovich, (1909-1973), Russia - tokamak * Al-Ashraf, (fl. 1282-1296), Yemen - dry compass * Joseph Aspdin, (1788-1855), England - Portland cement * John Vincent Atanasoff, (1903-1995), United States - modern programmable computer B * Georgy Babakin, (1914-1971), Russia - first soft landing space vehicle (Luna 9) * Charles Babbage, (1791-1871), UK - analytical engine (semi-automatic computer) * Roger Bacon, (1214-1292), England - magnifying glass * Leo Baekeland, (1863-1944), Belgian-American - Velox photographic paper and Bakelite * Ralph H. Baer, (1922-), German born American - video game console * Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi, (1162-1231), Iraq/Egypt - ventilator * John Logie Baird, (1888-1946), Scotland - an electromechanical television, electronic color television * Ibn al-Baitar, (d. 1248), Islamic Spain - three hundred drugs and foods, cancer therapy, pharmacotherapy, Hindiba, pharmacopoeia * Abi Bakr of Isfahan, (c. 1235), Persia/Iran - mechanical geared astrolabe with lunisolar calendar analog computer * Donat Banki, (1859-1922), Hungary - inventor of the carburetor * Vladimir Baranov-Rossine, (1888-1944), Ukraine/Russia/France - Optophonic Piano, pointillist or dynamic military camouflage * John Bardeen, (1908-1991), U.S. - co-inventor of the transistor * Vladimir Barmin, (1909-1993), Russia - first rocket launch complex (spaceport) * Anthony R. Barringer, Canada/U.S. - INPUT (Induced Pulse Transient) airborne electromagnetic system * Earl W. Bascom, (1906-1995), Canada/U.S. - side-delivery rodeo chute, hornless rodeo saddle, rodeo bareback rigging, rodeo chaps * Nikolay Basov, (1922-2001), Russia - co-inventor of laser and maser * Ibn Bassal, (fl.1038-1075), Islamic Spain - flywheel, flywheel-driven noria, flywheel-driven saqiya chain pump * Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī (Albatenius), (853-929), Syria/Turkey - observation tube * Eugen Baumann, (1846-1896), Germany - PVC * Trevor Baylis, (1937-), UK - a wind-up radio * Francis Beaufort, (1774-1857), France - Beaufort scale * Ernest Beaux, (1881-1961), Russia/France - Chanel No. 5 * Arnold O. Beckman, (1900-2004), U.S. - pH meter * Ulugh Beg, 1394-1449, Persia/Iran - Fakhri sextant, mural sextant * Vladimir Bekhterev, (1857-1927), Russia - Bekhterev's Mixture * Alexander Graham Bell, (1847-1922), Canada, Scotland, and U.S. - telephone * Karl Benz, (1844-1929), Germany - the petrol-powered automobile * Alexander Bereznyak, (1912-1974), Russia - first rocket-powered fighter aircraft, BI-1 (together with Isaev) * Georgy Beriev, (1903-1979), Georgia/Russia - Be-series amphibious aircraft * Emile Berliner, (1851-1929), Germany and U.S. - the disc record gramophone * Nikolay Benardos, (1842-1905), Russia - arc welding (specifically carbon arc welding, the first arc welding method) * Tim Berners-Lee, (1955-), UK - with Robert Cailliau, the World Wide Web * Abu Mansoor Nizar al-Aziz Billah, (955-996), Egypt - airmail, homing pigeon * Bi Sheng (Chinese: 畢昇), (ca. 990-1051), China - clay movable type printing * Laszlo Biro, (1899-1985), Hungary - modern ballpoint pen * Clarence Birdseye, (1886-1956), U.S. - frozen food process * Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, (973-1048), Persia/Iran - mechanical geared lunisolar calendar analog computer, fixed-wired knowledge processing machine, conical measure, laboratory flask, Orthographical astrolabe, hodometer, pycnometer * J. Stuart Blackton, (1875-1941), U.S. - stop-motion film * Otto Blathy (1860-1939), Hungary - co-inventor of the transformer, wattmeter, alternating current (AC) and turbogenerator * Fyodor Blinov, (1827-1902), Russia - first tracked vehicle, steam-powered continuous track tractor * Katharine B. Blodgett, (1898-1979), UK - nonreflective glass * Alan Blumlein, (1903-1942), England - stereo * Nils Bohlin, (1920-2002), Sweden - the three-point seat belt * Joseph-Armand Bombardier, (1907-1964), Canada - snowmobile * Sam Born, Russia/U.S. - lollipop-making machine * Jagdish Chandra Bose, (1858-1937), India - Crescograph * George de Bothezat, (1882-1940), Russia/U.S. - quadrotor helicopter (The Flying Octopus) * Robert W. Bower, (1936-), U.S. - self-aligned-gate MOSFET * Seth Boyden, (1788-1870), U.S. - nail-making machine * Walter Houser Brattain, (1902-1987), U.S. - co-inventor of the transistor * Louis Braille, (1809-1852), France - the Braille writing system * Karl Ferdinand Braun, (1850-1918), Germany - cathode-ray tube oscilloscope * Harry Brearley, (1871-1948), UK - stainless steel * Sergey Brin, (1973-), Russia/U.S. - with Larry Page invented Google web search engine * Mikhail Britnev, (1822-1889), Russia - first metal-hull icebreaker (Pilot) * Rachel Fuller Brown, (1898-1980), U.S., Nystatin, the world's first antifungal antibiotic * John Moses Browning, (1855-1926), U.S. - automatic handgun * Maria Christina Bruhn, (1732-1802), Sweden * Nikolay Brusentsov, (born 1925), Russia - ternary computer (Setun) * Edwin Beard Budding, (1795-1846), UK - lawnmower * Gersh Budker, (1918-1977), Russia - electron cooling, co-inventor of collider * Corliss Orville Burandt, U.S. - Variable valve timing * Henry Burden,(1791-1871) Scotland and U.S.- Horseshoe machine (made 60 horse shoes in a minute), first usable Iron Railed road spike, and builder of the most powerful waterwheel in history "Niagara of Water-Wheels" * Richard James Burgess, U.K. - Simmons (electronic drum company), co-inventor of SDS5 drum synthesizer * Aleksandr Butlerov, (1828-1886), Russia - hexamine, formaldehyde C * Robert Cailliau, (1947-), Belgium - with Tim Berners-Lee, the World Wide Web * C`ai Lun, 蔡倫 (50-121 AD), China - paper * Marvin Camras, (1916-1995), U.S. - magnetic recording * Chester Carlson, (1906-1968), U.S. - Xerography * Wallace Carothers, (1896-1937), U.S. - Nylon * Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi, (fl.1630-1632), Turkey - long-distance flight, artificial wings * Lagari Hasan Celebi, (1633), Turkey - first manned rocket flight * Joseph Constantine Carpue, (1764-1846), France - rhinoplastic surgery * George Cayley, (1773-1857), UK - glider, tension-spoke wheels, Caterpillar track * Roxey Ann Caplin, (1793-1888), UK - Corsets * Dennis Charter, (1952-), Australia - secure electronic payment system for internet PaySafe * Vladimir Chelomey, (1914-1984), Russia - first space station (Salyut), Proton rocket (the most used heavy lift launch system) * Pavel Cherenkov, (1904-1990), Russia - Cherenkov detector * Adrian Chernoff, (1971-), U.S. - GM Autonomy, GM Hy-wire, Rubber Bandits * Evgeniy Chertovsky, (1902-), Russia - pressure suit * Alexander Chizhevsky, (1897-1964), Russia - air ionizer * Andrey Chokhov, (c. 1545-1629), Russia - Tsar Cannon * Niels Christensen (1865-1952), U.S. - O-ring * Samuel Hunter Christie, (1784-1865), UK - Wheatstone bridge * Juan de la Cierva, (1895-1936), Spain - the autogyro * Alexandru Ciurcu, (1854-1922), Romania - Reaction engine * Georges Claude, (1870-1960), France - neon lamp * Henri Coandă, (1886-1972), Romania - Jet engine * Josephine Cochrane, (1839-1913), U.S. - dishwasher * Christopher Cockerell, (1910-1999), UK - Hovercraft * Aeneas Coffey, (1780-1852), Ireland - heat exchanger, Coffey still * Sir Henry Cole, (1808-1882), England - Christmas card * Samuel Colt, (1814-1862), U.S. - Revolver * George Constantinescu, (1881-1965), Romania - Interrupter gear * Lloyd Groff Copeman, (1865-1956), U.S. - Electric stove * Cornelis Corneliszoon, (1550-1607), The Netherlands - sawmill * Jacques Cousteau, (1910-1997), France - co-inventor of the aqualung and the Nikonos underwater camera * Thomas Crapper, (1836-1910), England - ballcock (toilet valve) * Bartolomeo Cristofori, (1655-1731), Italy - piano * János Csonka, (1852-1939), Hungary - co-inventor of carburetor * Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot, (1725-1804), France - first steam-powered road vehicle * William Cumberland Cruikshank, (1745-1800), UK - chlorinated water * William Cullen, (1710-1790), UK - first artificial refrigerator * Glenn Curtiss, (1878-1930), U.S. - ailerons D * Gustaf Dalén, (1869-1937), Sweden - AGA cooker; Dalén light; Agamassan * Salvino D'Armate, (1258-1312), Italy - credited for inventing eyeglasses in 1284 * Corradino D'Ascanio, (1891-1981), Italy - D'AT3 helicopter; Vespa scooter * Jacob Davis, (1868-1908), U.S. - riveted jeans * Edmund Davy, (1785-1857), Ireland - acetylene * Humphry Davy, (1778-1829), UK - Davy miners lamp * Joseph Day, (1855-1946), UK - the crankcase-compression two-stroke engine * Lee DeForest, (1873-1961), U.S. - triode * Vasily Degtyaryov, (1880-1949), Russia - first self-loading carbine, Degtyaryov-series firearms, co-developer of Fedorov Avtomat * Akinfiy Demidov, (1678-1745), Russia - co-developer of rebar, cast iron dome, lightning rod (all found in the Leaning Tower of Nevyansk) * Yuri Nikolaevich Denisyuk, (1927-2006), Russia - 3D holography * Miksa Deri (1854-1938), Hungary - co-inventor of an improved closed-core transformer * James Dewar, (1842-1923), UK - Thermos flask * Aleksandr Dianin, (1851-1918), Russia - Bisphenol A, Dianin's compound * William Kennedy Laurie Dickson, (1860-1935), UK - motion picture camera * Philip Diehl, (1847-1913), U.S. - Ceiling fan, electric sewing machine * Rudolf Diesel, (1858-1913), Germany - Diesel engine * Al-Dinawari, (828-896), Persia/Iran - more than a hundred plant drugs * William H. Dobelle, (1943-2004), United States - first functioning artificial eye * Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky, (1862-1919),Poland/Russia - three-phase electric power (first 3-phase hydroelectric power plant, 3-phase electrical generator, 3-phase motor and 3-phase transformer) * Nikolay Dollezhal, (1899-2000),Russia - AM-1 reactor for the 1st nuclear power plant, other RBMK reactors, VVER pressurized water reactors * Bryan Donkin, (1768-1855), UK - print industry composition roller * Hub van Doorne, (1900-1979), Netherlands, Variomatic continuously variable transmission * Anastase Dragomir, (1896-1966), Romania - Ejection seat * Karl Drais, (1785-1851), Germany - dandy horse (Draisine) * Cornelius Drebbel, (1572-1633), The Netherlands - first navigable submarine * Richard Drew, (1899-1980), U.S. - Masking tape * John Boyd Dunlop, (1840-1921) UK - first practical pneumatic tyre * Cyril Duquet, (1841-1922) Canada - Telephone handset * Alexey Dushkin, (1904-1977), Russia - deep column station * James Dyson, (1947- ) UK - Dual Cyclone bagless vacuum cleaner, incorporating the principles of cyclonic separation. E * George Eastman, (1854-1932), U.S. - roll film * Thomas Edison, (1847-1931), U.S. - phonograph, commercially practical light bulb, stock ticker, ticker-tape machine etc. * Willem Einthoven, (1860-1927), The Netherlands - the electrocardiogram * Ivan Elmanov, Russia - first monorail (horse-drawn) * Rune Elmqvist, (1906-1996), Sweden - implantable pacemaker * Douglas Engelbart, (1925-), U.S. - the computer mouse [1] * John Ericsson, (1803-1889), Sweden - the two screw-propeller * Lars Magnus Ericsson, (1846-1926), Sweden - the handheld micro telephone * Ole Evinrude, (1877-1934), Norway - outboard motor F * Peter Carl Fabergé, (1846-1920), Russia - Fabergé Eggs * Samuel Face, (1923-2001), U.S. - concrete flatness/levelness technology; Lightning Switch * Michael Faraday, (1791-1867), England - electric transformer, electric motor * Johann Maria Farina, (1685-1766), Germany; Eau de Cologne * Philo Farnsworth, (1906-1971), U.S. - electronic television * Muhammad al-Fazari, (d. 796/806), Persia/Iran/Iraq - brass astrolabe * James Fergason, (1934-), U.S. - improved liquid crystal display * Enrico Fermi, (1901-1954), Italy - nuclear reactor * Humberto Fernández Morán, (1924-1999), Venezuela - Diamond scalpel, Ultra microtome * Reginald Fessenden, (1866-1932), Canada - two-way radio * Adolf Gaston Eugen Fick, (1829-1901), Germany - contact lens * Fatima al-Fihri, (c. 859), Tunisia/Morocco - university * Abbas Ibn Firnas (Armen Firman), (810-887), Al-Andalus - eye glasses, artificial wings, watch, fused quartz and silica glass, artificial thunder and lightning, metronome * Artur Fischer, (1919-) Germany - fasteners including fischertechnik. * Gerhard Fischer, Germany/U.S. - hand-held metal detector * Nicolas Florine, (1891-1972), Georgia/Russia/Belgium - first tandem rotor helicopter to fly freely * Robert Fulton, (1765-1815), United States - first commercially successful steamboat, first practical submarine * Alexander Fleming, (1881-1955), Scotland - penicillin * John Ambrose Fleming, (1848-1945), England - vacuum diode * Sandford Fleming, (1827-1915), Canada - Universal Standard Time * Tommy Flowers, (1905-1998), England - Colossus an early electronic computer. * Jean Bernard Léon Foucault, (1819-1868), France - Foucault pendulum, gyroscope, eddy current * Benoît Fourneyron, (1802-1867), France - water turbine * John Fowler, (1826-1864), England - steam-driven ploughing engine * Benjamin Franklin, (1706-1790), U.S. - the pointed lightning rod conductor, bifocal glasses, the Franklin stove, the glass harmonica * Augustin-Jean Fresnel, (1788-1827), France - Fresnel lens * William Friese-Greene, (1855-1921), England - cinematography * Buckminster Fuller, (1895-1983), U.S. - geodesic dome * Ivan Fyodorov, (c. 1510-1583), Russia/Poland-Lithuania - invented multibarreled mortar, introduced printing in Russia * Svyatoslav Fyodorov, (1927-2000), Russia - radial keratotomy * Vladimir Fyodorov, (1874-1966), Russia - Fedorov Avtomat (first self-loading battle rifle, arguably the first assault rifle) G * Dennis Gabor, (1900-1979), UK - holography * Boris Borisovich Galitzine, (1862-1916), Russia - electromagnetic seismograph * Dmitri Garbuzov, (1940-2006), Russia/U.S. - continuous-wave-operating diode lasers (together with Zhores Alferov), high-power diode lasers * Elmer R. Gates, (1859-1923), USA - foam fire extinguisher, electric loom mechanisms, magnetic & diamagnetic separators, educational toy ("box & blocks") * Richard J. Gatling, (1818-1903), U.S. - wheat drill, first successful machine gun * Georgy Gause, (1910-1986), Russia - gramicidin S, neomycin, lincomycin and other antibiotics * E. K. Gauzen, Russia - three bolt equipment (early diving costume) * Hans Wilhelm Geiger, (1882-1945), Germany - Geiger counter * Andrey Geim, (born 1958), Russia/United Kingdom - graphene * Nestor Genko, (1839-1904), Russia - Genko's Forest Belt (the first large-scale windbreak system) * Henri Giffard, (1825-1882), France - powered airship, injector * Valentyn Glushko, (1908-1989), Russia - hypergolic propellant, electric propulsion, Soviet rocket engines (including world's most powerful liquid-fuel rocket engine RD-170) * Heinrich Göbel, (1818-1893), Germany - incandescent lamp * Leonid Gobyato, (1875-1915), Russia - first modern man-portable mortar * Robert Goddard, (1882-1945), U.S. - liquid fuel rocket * Igor Gorynin, (1926), Russia - weldable titanium alloys, high strength aluminum alloys, radiation-hardened steels * Peter Carl Goldmark, (1906-1977), Hungary - vinyl record (LP), CBS color television * Charles Goodyear, (1800-1860), U.S. - vulcanization of rubber * Gordon Gould, (1920-2005), U.S. - co-inventor of laser * Richard Hall Gower, (1768-1833), England - ship's hull and rigging * Boris Grabovsky, (1901-1966), Russia - cathode commutator, an early electronic TV pickup tube * Bette Nesmith Graham, (1924-1980), U.S. - Liquid Paper * James Henry Greathead, (1844-1896), South Africa - tunnel boring machine, tunnelling shield technique * Chester Greenwood, (1858-1937), U.S. - thermal earmuffs * James Gregory, (1638-1675), Scotland - Gregorian telescope * William Robert Grove, (1811-1896), Wales - fuel cell * Otto von Guericke, (1602-1686), Germany - vacuum pump, manometer, dasymeter * Mikhail Gurevich, (1893-1976), Russia - MiG-series fighter aircraft, including world's most produced jet aircraft MiG-15 and most produced supersonic aircraft MiG-21 (together with Artem Mikoyan) * Hakan Gürsu, (c. 2007), Turkey - Volitan * Johann Gutenberg, (c. 1390s-1468), Germany - movable type printing press * Samuel Guthrie, (1782-1848), U.S. - discovered chloroform H * John Hadley, (1682-1744), England - Octant * Waldemar Haffkine, (1860-1930), Russia/Switzerland - first anti-cholera and anti-plague vaccines * Tracy Hall, (1919-2008 ), U.S. - synthetic diamond * Christopher Hansteen, (1783-1873), Norway - discovery of terrestrial magnetism * James Hargreaves, (1720-1778), England - spinning jenny * John Harington, (1561-1612), England - the flush toilet * John Harrison, (1693-1776), England - marine chronometer * Victor Hasselblad, (1906-1978), Sweden - invented the 6 x 6 cm single-lens reflex camera * Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), (965-1039), Iraq - camera obscura, pinhole camera, magnifying glass * Robert A. Heinlein, (1907-1988), U.S. - waterbed * Jozef Karol Hell, (1713-1789), Slovakia - the water pillar * Rudolf Hell, (1901-2002), Germany - the Hellschreiber * Joseph Henry, (1797-1878), Scotland/U.S. - electromagnetic relay * Heron, (c. 10-70), Roman Egypt - usually credited with invention of the aeolipile, although it may have been described a century earlier * John Herschel, (1792-1871), England - photographic fixer (hypo) * William Herschel, (1738-1822), England - infrared * Heinrich Hertz, (1857-1894), Germany - radio telegraphy, electromagnetic radiation * George de Hevesy, (1885-1966), Hungary - radioactive tracer * Rowland Hill, (1795-1879), UK - postage stamp * Maurice Hilleman (1919-2005) vaccines agains childhood diseases * Felix Hoffmann (Bayer), (1868-1949), Germany - Aspirin * Herman Hollerith, (1860-1929), U.S. - recording data on a machine readable medium, tabulator, punched cards * Nick Holonyak, (1928- ), U.S. - LED (Light Emitting Diode) * Robert Hooke, (1635-1703), England - balance wheel, iris diaphragm * Erna Schneider Hoover, (1926-), U.S. - computerized telephone switching system * Frank Hornby, (1863-1936), England - invented Meccano * Coenraad Johannes van Houten, (1801-1887), Netherlands - cocoa powder, cacao butter, chocolate milk * Elias Howe, (1819-1867), U.S. - sewing machine * Muhammad Husayn, (fl.17th century), Persia/Iran - cartographic Qibla indicator with sundial and compass * Christiaan Huygens, (1629-1695), Netherlands - pendulum clock * John Wesley Hyatt, (1837-1920), U.S. - celluloid manufacturing. I * Sumio Iijima, (1939- ), Japan - Carbon nanotubes * Gavriil Ilizarov, (1921-1992), Russia - Ilizarov apparatus, external fixation, distraction osteogenesis * Sergey Ilyushin, (1894-1977), Russia - Il-series aircraft, including Ilyushin Il-2 bomber (the most produced military aircraft in history) * János Irinyi, (1817-1895), Hungary - noiseless match * Aleksei Isaev, (1908-1971), Russia - first rocket-powered fighter aircraft, BI-1 (together with Isaev) J * Jabir ibn Aflah (Geber), (c. 1100-1150), Islamic Spain - portable celestial globe * Jābir ibn Hayyān (Geber), (c. 721-815), Persia/Iran - pure distillation, liquefaction, purification, retort, mineral acids, nitric and sulfuric acids, hydrochloric acid, aqua regia, alum, alkali, borax, pure sal ammoniac, lead carbonatic, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, pure mercury and sulfur, plated mail * Moritz von Jacobi, (1801-1874), Germany/Russia - electrotyping, electric boat * Karl Jatho, (1873-1933), Germany - aeroplane * Al-Jazari, (1136-1206), Iraq - crank-driven and hydropowered saqiya chain pump, crank-driven screw and screwpump, elephant clock, weight-driven clock, weight-driven pump, reciprocating piston suction pump, geared and hydropowered water supply system, programmable humanoid robots, robotics, hand washing automata, flush mechanism, lamination, static balancing, paper model, sand casting, molding sand, intermittency, linkage * Ibn Al-Jazzar (Algizar), (c. 898-980), Tunisia - sexual dysfunction and erectile dysfunction treatment drugs * György Jendrassik, (1898-1954), Hungary - turboprop * Charles Francis Jenkins, (1867-1934) - television and movie projector (Phantoscope) * Carl Edvard Johansson, (1864-1943), Sweden - Gauge blocks * Johan Petter Johansson, (1853-1943), Sweden - the pipe wrench and the modern adjustable spanner * Nancy Johnson, U.S. - American version of the hand cranked ice cream machine in (1843) * Scott A. Jones, (1960-), U.S. - created one of the most successful versions of voicemail as well as ChaCha Search, a human-assisted internet search engine. * Whitcomb Judson, (1836-1909), U.S. - zipper [edit] K * Mikhail Kalashnikov, (1919-), Russia - AK-47 and AK-74 assault rifles (the most produced ever)[1] * Dean Kamen, (1951-), U.S. - Invented the Segway HT scooter and the IBOT Mobility Device * Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, (1853-1926), Netherlands - liquify helium * Nikolay Kamov, (1902-1973), Russia - armored battle autogyro, Ka-series coaxial rotor helicopters * Pyotr Kapitsa, (1894-1984), Russia - first ultrastrong magnetic field creating techniques, basic low-temperature physics inventions * Georgii Karpechenko, (1899-1941), Russia - rabbage (the first ever non-sterile hybrid obtained through the crossbreeding) * Jamshīd al-Kāshī, (c. 1380-1429), Persia/Iran - plate of conjunctions, analog planetary computer * Yevgeny Kaspersky, (1965-), Russia - Kaspersky Anti-Virus, Kaspersky Internet Security, Kaspersky Mobile Security anti-virus products * Adolphe Kégresse, (1879-1943), France/Russia - Kégresse track (first half-track and first off-road vehicle with continuous track), dual clutch transmission * Mstislav Keldysh, (1911-1978), Latvia/Russia - co-developer of Sputnik 1 (the first artificial satellite) together with Korolyov and Tikhonravov * John Harvey Kellogg, (1852-1943), cornflake breakfasts * John George Kemeny, (1926-1992), Hungary - co-inventor of BASIC * Alexander Kemurdzhian, (1921-2003), Russia - first space exploration rover (Lunokhod) * Kerim Kerimov, (1917-2003), Azerbaijan and Russia - co-developer of human spaceflight, space dock, space station * Charles F. Kettering, (1876-1958), U.S. - invented automobile self-starter ignition, Freon ethyl gasoline and more * Khalid, (fl.9th century), Ethiopia - coffee * Fazlur Khan, (1929-1982), Bangladesh - structural systems for high-rise skyscrapers * Yulii Khariton, (1904-1996), Russia - chief designer of the Soviet atomic bomb, co-developer of the Tsar Bomb * Anatoly Kharlampiev, (1906-1979), Russia - Sambo (martial art) * Al-Khazini, (fl.1115-1130), Persia/Iran - hydrostatic balance * Konstantin Khrenov, (1894-1984), Russia - underwater welding * Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi, (c. 940-1000), Persia/Iran - astronomical sextant * Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (Algoritmi), (c. 780-850), Persia/Iran - modern algebra, mural instrument, horary quadrant, Sine quadrant, shadow square * Erhard Kietz, (1909-1982), Germany & U.S.A. - patented signal improvements for video transmissions Erhard Kietz Patents * Jack Kilby, (1923-2005), U.S. - patented the first integrated circuit * Al-Kindi (Alkindus), (801-873), Iraq/Yemen - ethanol, pure distilled alcohol, cryptanalysis, frequency analysis * Fritz Klatte, (1880-1934), Germany - vinyl chloride, forerunner to polyvinyl chloride * Margaret E. Knight, (1838-1914), U.S. - machine that completely constructs box-bottom brown paper bags * Ivan Knunyants, (1906-1990), Armenia/Russia - capron, Nylon 6, polyamide-6 * Robert Koch, (1843-1910), Germany - method for culturing bacteria on solid media * Willem Johan Kolff, (1911-2009), Netherlands - artificial kidney hemodialysis machine * Rudolf Kompfner, (1909-1977), U.S. - Traveling-wave tube * Konstantin Konstantinov, (1817 or 1819-1871), Russia - device for measuring flight speed of projectiles, ballistic rocket pendulum, launch pad, rocket-making machine * Sergey Korolyov, (1907-1966), Ukraine/Russia - first successful intercontinental ballistic missile (R-7 Semyorka), R-7 rocket family, Sputniks (including the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite), Vostok program (including the first human spaceflight) * Nikolai Korotkov, (1874-1920), Russia - auscultatory technique for blood pressure measurement * Semen Korsakov, (1787-1853), Russia - punched card for information storage * Mikhail Koshkin, (1898-1940), Russia - T-34 medium tank, the best and most produced tank of World War II[2] * Ognjeslav Kostović, (1851-1916), Serbia/Russia - arborite (high-strength plywood, an early plastic) * Gleb Kotelnikov, (1872-1944), Russia - knapsack parachute, drogue parachute * Alexei Krylov, (1863-1945), Russia - gyroscopic damping of ships * Ivan Kulibin, (1735-1818), Russia - egg-shaped clock, candle searchlight, elevator using screw mechanisms, a self-rolling carriage featuring a flywheel, brake, gear box, and bearing, an early optical telegraph * Igor Kurchatov, (1903-1960), Russia - first nuclear power plant, first nuclear reactors for submarines and surface ships * Raymond Kurzweil, (1948-), Optical character recognition; flatbed scanner * Stephanie Kwolek, (1923-), U.S. - Kevlar * John Howard Kyan (1774-1850), Ireland - The process of Kyanization used for wood preservation L * Dmitry Lachinov, (1842-1902), Russia - mercury pump, economizer for electricity consumption, electrical insulation tester, optical dynamometer, photometer, elecrolyser * René Laënnec, (1781-1826), France - stethoscope * Lala Balhumal Lahuri, (c. 1842), Mughal India - seamless globe and celestial globe * Georges Lakhovsky, (1869-1942), Russia/U.S. - Multiple Wave Oscillator * Hedy Lamarr, (1913-2000), Austria and U.S. - Spread spectrum radio * Edwin H. Land, (1909-1991), U.S. - Polaroid polarizing filters and the Land Camera * Samuel P. Langley, (1834-1906), U.S. - bolometer * Irving Langmuir, (1851-1957), U.S. - gas filled incandescent light bulb, hydrogen welding * Lewis Latimer, (1848-1928), - Invented the modern day light bulb * Gustav de Laval, (1845-1913), Sweden - invented the milk separator and the milking machine * Semyon Lavochkin, (1900-1960), Russia - La-series aircraft, first operational surface-to-air missile S-25 Berkut * John Bennet Lawes, (1814-1900), England - superphosphate or chemical fertilizer * Nikolai Lebedenko, Russia - Tsar Tank, the largest armored vehicle in history * Sergei Lebedev, (1874-1934), Russia - commercially viable synthetic rubber * Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, (1632-1723), Netherlands - development of the microscope * Jean-Joseph Etienne Lenoir, (1822-1900), Belgium - internal combustion engine, motorboat * R. G. LeTourneau, (1888-1969), U.S.- electric wheel, motor scraper, mobile oil drilling platform, bulldozer, cable control unit for scrapers * Willard Frank Libby, (1908-1980), U.S. - radiocarbon dating * Justus von Liebig, (1803-1873), Germany - nitrogen-based fertilizer * Otto Lilienthal, (1848-1896), Germany - hang glider * Frans Wilhelm Lindqvist, (1862-1931), Sweden - Kerosene stove operated by compressed air * Hans Lippershey, (1570-1619), Netherlands - telescope * Lisitsyn brothers, Ivan Fyodorovich and Nazar Fyodorovich, Russia - samovar (the first documented makers) * William Howard Livens, (1889-1964), England - chemical warfare - Livens Projector. * Alexander Lodygin, (1847-1923), Russia - electrical filament, incandescent light bulb with tungsten filament * Mikhail Lomonosov, (1711-1765), Russia - night vision telescope, off-axis reflecting telescope, coaxial rotor, re-invented smalt * Yury Lomonosov, (1876-1952), Russia/United Kingdom - first successful mainline diesel locomotive * Aleksandr Loran, (1849 - after 1911), Russia - fire fighting foam, foam extinguisher * Oleg Losev, (1903-1942), Russia - light-emitting diode, crystadine * Archibald Low, (1882-1956), Britain - Pioneer of radio guidance systems * Auguste and Louis Lumière, France - Cinématographe * Gleb Lozino-Lozinskiy, (1909-2001), Russia - Buran (spacecraft), Spiral project * Ignacy Łukasiewicz, (1822-1882), Poland - modern kerosene lamp * Giovanni Luppis, (1813-1875), Austrian Empire (ethnical Italian) - self-propelled torpedo * Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman, (fl.1589-1590), Mughal India - seamless globe and celestial globe * Arkhip Lyulka, (1908-1984), Russia - first double jet turbofan engine, other Soviet aircraft engines M * Ma Jun, (c. 200-265), China - South Pointing Chariot (see differential gear), mechanical puppet theater, chain pumps, improved silk looms * Aleksandr Makarov, Russia/Germany - Orbitrap mass spectrometer * Stepan Makarov, (1849-1904), Russia - Icebreaker Yermak, the first true icebreaker able to ride over and crush pack ice * Nestor Makhno, (1888-1934), Ukraine/Russia - tachanka * Charles Macintosh, (1766-1843), Scotland - waterproof raincoat, life vest * Victor Makeev, (1924-1985), Russia - first submarine-launched ballistic missile * Dmitri Dmitrievich Maksutov, (1896-1964), Russia - Maksutov telescope * Sergey Malyutin, (1859-1937), Russia - designed the first matryoshka doll (together with Vasily Zvyozdochkin) * Al-Ma'mun, (786-833), Iraq - singing bird automata, terrestrial globe * Boris Mamyrin, (1919-2007), Russia - reflectron (ion mirror) * George William Manby, (1765-1854), England - Fire extinguisher * Guglielmo Marconi, (1874-1937), Italy - radio telegraphy * John Landis Mason, (1826-1902), U.S. - Mason jars * Henry Maudslay, (1771-1831), England - screw-cutting lathe, bench micrometer * Hiram Maxim, (1840-1916), USA born, England - First self-powered machine gun * James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) and Thomas Sutton Scotland - color photography * Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili, (9th century), Iraq - syringe, hypodermic needle, cataract extraction, injection, suction * John McAdam, (1756-1836), Scotland - improved "macadam" road surface * Elijah McCoy, (1843-1929), Canada - Displacement lubricator * Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, (1845-1916), Russia - probiotics * Hippolyte Mège-Mouriés, (1817-1880), France - margarine * Dmitri Mendeleev, (1834-1907), Russia - Periodic table, pycnometer, pyrocollodion, also credited with determining the ideal vodka proof as 38% (later rounded to 40%) * Antonio Meucci, (1808-1889), Italy - telephone (prototype) * Edouard Michelin, (1859-1940), France - pneumatic tire * Anthony Michell, (1870-1959), Australia - tilting pad thrust bearing, crankless engine * Artem Mikoyan, (1905-1970), Armenia/Russia - MiG-series fighter aircraft, including world's most produced jet aircraft MiG-15 and most produced supersonic aircraft MiG-21 (together with Mikhail Gurevich) * Alexander Mikulin, (1895-1985), Russia - Mikulin AM-34 and other Soviet aircraft engines, co-developer of the Tsar Tank * Mikhail Mil, (1909-1970), Russia - Mi-series helicopter aircraft, including Mil Mi-8 (the world's most-produced helicopter) and Mil Mi-12 (the world's largest helicopter) * Pavel Molchanov, (1893-1941), Russia - radiosonde * Jules Montenier, (c. 1910), U.S. - modern anti-perspirant deodorant * Montgolfier brothers, (1740-1810) and (1745-1799), France - hot-air balloon * John J. Montgomery, (1858-1911), U.S. - heavier-than-air gliders * Narcis Monturiol i Estarriol, (1819-1885), Spain - steam powered submarine * Robert Moog, (1934-2005), U.S. - the Moog synthesizer * Samuel Morey, (1762-1843), U.S. - internal combustion engine * Garrett A. Morgan, (1877-1963), U.S. - inventor of the gas mask, and traffic signal. * Samuel Morse, (1791-1872), U.S. - telegraph * Alexander Morozov, (1904-1979), Russia - T-54/55 (the most produced tank in history), co-developer of T-34 * Sergei Ivanovich Mosin, (1849-1902), Russia - Mosin-Nagant rifle * Motorins, Ivan Feodorovich (1660s - 1735) and his son Mikhail Ivanovich (?-1750), Russia - Tsar Bell * Vera Mukhina, (1889-1953), Russia - welded sculpture * Al-Muqaddasi, (c. 946-1000), Palestine - restaurant * Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi, (fl.11th century), Islamic Spain - geared mechanical clock, segmental gear, epicyclic gearing * William Murdoch, (1754-1839), Scotland - Gas lighting * Jozef Murgas, (1864-1929), Slovakia - inventor of the wireless telegraph (forerunner of the radio) * Evgeny Murzin, (1914-1970), Russia - ANS synthesizer * Banū Mūsā brothers, Muhammad (c. 800-873), Ahmad (803-873), Al-Hasan (810-873), Iraq - mechanical trick devices, hurricane lamp, self-trimming and self-feeding lamp, gas mask, clamshell grab, fail-safe system, mechanical musical instrument, automatic flute player, programmable machine * Pieter van Musschenbroek, (1692-1761), Netherlands - Leyden jar, pyrometer * Eadweard Muybridge, (1830-1904), England - motion picture N * Alexander Nadiradze, (1914-1987), Georgia/Russia - first mobile ICBM (RT-21 Temp 2S), first reliable mobile ICBM (RT-2PM Topol) * John Napier, (1550-1617), Scotland - logarithms * James Naismith, (1861-1939), Canadian born, USA - invented basketball and American football helmet * Yoshiro Nakamatsu, (b. 1928), Japan - floppy disk, "PyonPyon" spring shoes, digital watch, CinemaScope, armchair "Cerebrex", sauce pump, taxicab meter * Andrey Nartov, (1683-1756), Russia - first lathe with a mechanic cutting tool-supporting carriage and a set of gears, fast-fire battery on a rotating disc, screw mechanism for changing the artillery fire angle, gauge-boring lathe for cannon-making, early telescopic sight * James Nasmyth, (1808-1890), Scotland - steam hammer * Nebuchadrezzar II, (c. 630-562 BC), Iraq (Mesopotamia) - screw, screwpump * Sergey Nepobedimiy, (1921-), Russia - first supersonic anti-tank guided missile Sturm, other Soviet rocket weaponry * John von Neumann, (1903-1957), Hungary - Von Neumann computer architecture * Isaac Newton,(1642-1727), England - reflecting telescope (which reduces chromatic aberration) * Joseph Nicephore Niépce, (1765-1833), France - photography * Nikolai Nikitin, (1907-1973), Russia - prestressed concrete with wire ropes structure (Ostankino Tower), Nikitin-Travush 4000 project (precursor to X-Seed 4000) * Paul Gottlieb Nipkow, (1860-1940), Germany - Nipkow disk * Jun-Ichi Nishizawa, (1926-), Japan - Optical communication system, SIT/SITh (Static Induction Transistor/Thyristor), Laser diode, PIN diode * Alfred Nobel, (1833-1896), Sweden - dynamite * Ludvig Nobel, (1831-1888), Sweden/Russia - first successful oil tanker * Carl Rickard Nyberg, (1858-1939), Sweden - the blowtorch O * Theophil Wilgodt Odhner, (1845-1903), Sweden/Russia - the Odhner Arithmometer, a mechanical calculator * Lucien Olivier, (1838-1883), Belgium or France / Russia - Russian salad (Olivier salad) * J. Robert Oppenheimer, (1904-1967), United States - Atomic bomb * Edward Otho Cresap Ord, II, (1858-1923) American - weapon sights & mining * Hans Christian Ørsted, (1777-1851), Denmark - electromagnetism, aluminum * Elisha Otis, (1811-1861), U.S. - passenger elevator with safety device * William Oughtred, (1575-1660), England - slide rule P * Larry Page, (1973-), U.S. - with Sergey Brin invented Google web search engine * Alexey Pajitnov, (born 1956), Russia/U.S. - Tetris * Helge Palmcrantz, (1842-1880), Sweden - the multi-barrel, lever-actuated, machine gun * Daniel David Palmer, (1845-1913), Canada - chiropractic * Luigi Palmieri, (1807-1896), Italy - seismometer * Alexander Parkes, (1831-1890), England - celluloid * Charles Algernon Parsons, (1854-1931), British - steam turbine * Spede Pasanen, (1930-2001), Finland - ski jumping sling * Blaise Pascal, (1623-1662), France - barometer, Pascal's calculator * Gustaf Erik Pasch, (1788-1862), Sweden - safety match * Les Paul, (1915-2009), U.S. - multitrack recording * Nicolae Paulescu, (1869-1931), Romania - insulin * Ivan Pavlov, (1849-1936), Russia, - classical conditioning * Arthur Paul Pedrick, England - chromatically selective cat flap and others * John Pemberton, (1831-1888), U.S. - Coca-Cola * Slavoljub Eduard Penkala, (1871-1922), Croatia - mechanical pencil * Henry Perky, (1843-1906), U.S. - shredded wheat * Stephen Perry, England - rubber band * Vladimir Petlyakov, (1891-1942), Russia - heavy bomber * Peter Petroff, (1919-2004), Bulgaria - digital wrist watch, heart monitor, weather instruments * Fritz Pfleumer, (1881-1945), Germany - magnetic tape * Nikolay Ivanovich Pirogov, (1810-1881), Russia - early use of ether as anaesthetic, first anaesthesia in a field operation, various kinds of surgical operations * Fyodor Pirotsky, (1845-1898), Russia - electric tram * Arthur Pitney, (1871-1933), United States - postage meter * Joseph Plateau, (1801-1883), Belgium - phenakistiscope (stroboscope) * Baltzar von Platen, (1898-1984), Sweden - gas absorption refrigerator * James Leonard Plimpton, U.S. - roller skates * Ivan Plotnikov, (1902-1995), Russia - kirza leather * Petrache Poenaru, (1799-1875), Romania - fountain pen * Christopher Polhem, (1661-1751), Sweden - the modern padlock * Nikolai Polikarpov, (1892-1944), Russia - Po-series aircraft, including Polikarpov Po-2 Kukuruznik (world's most produced biplane) * Ivan Polzunov, (1728-1766), Russia - first two-cylinder steam engine * Mikhail Pomortsev, (1851-1916), Russia - nephoscope * Olivia Poole, (1889-1975), U.S., - the Jolly Jumper baby harness * Alexander Popov, (1859-1906), Russia - lightning detector (the first lightning prediction system and radio receiver), co-inventor of radio * Nikolay Popov, (1931-2008), Russia - first fully gas turbine main battle tank (T-80) * Aleksandr Porokhovschikov, (1892-1941), Russia - Vezdekhod (the first prototype tank, or tankette, and the first caterpillar amphibious ATV) * Joseph Priestley, (1733-1804), England - soda water * Alexander Procofieff de Seversky, 1894-1974, Russia/United States of America - first gyroscopically stabilized bombsight, ionocraft, also developed air-to-air refueling * Alexander Prokhorov, (1916-2002), Russia - co-inventor of laser and maser * Petro Prokopovych, (1775-1850), Ukraine/Russia - early beehive frame, queen excluder and other beekeeping novelties * Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky, (1863-1944), Russia/France - early colour photography method based on three colour channels, also colour film slides and colour motion pictures * George Pullman, (1831-1897), U.S. - Pullman sleep wagon * Michael I. Pupin, (1858-1935), Serbia - pupinization (loading coils), tunable oscillator * Tivadar Puskas, (1844-1893), Hungary - telephone exchange [edit] R * Mario Rabinowitz, (1936-), U.S. - solar concentrator with tracking micromirrors * Hasan al-Rammah, (fl.1270s), Syria - purified potassium nitrate, explosive gunpowder, torpedo * Harun al-Rashid, (763-809), Persia/Iran - public hospital, medical school * Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes), (865-965), Persia/Iran - distillation and extraction methods, sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid, soap kerosene, kerosene lamp, chemotherapy, sodium hydroxide * Karl von Reichenbach, (1788-1869), paraffin, creosote oil, phenol * Ira Remsen, (1846-1927), U.S. - saccharin * Ralf Reski, (* 1958), Germany - Moss Bioreactor 1998 * Josef Ressel, (1793-1857), Czechoslovakia - ship propeller * Charles Francis Richter, (1900-1985), U.S. - Richter magnitude scale * Hyman George Rickover, (1900-1986), U.S. - Nuclear submarine * John Roebuck, (1718-1794) England - lead chamber process for sulfuric acid synthesis * Peter I the Great, Tsar and Emperor of Russia, (1672-1725), Russia - decimal currency, yacht club, sounding line with separating plummet (sounding weight probe) * Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, (1845-1923), Germany - the X-ray machine * Ida Rosenthal, (1886-1973), Belarus/Russia/United States - modern brassiere (Maidenform), the standard of cup sizes, nursing bra, full-figured bra, the first seamed uplift bra (all with her husband William) * Boris Rosing, (1869-1933), Russia - CRT television (first TV system using CRT on the receiving side) * Eugene Roshal, (born 1972), Russia - FAR file manager, RAR file format, WinRAR file archiver * Ernő Rubik, (1944-), Hungary - Rubik's cube, Rubik's Magic and Rubik's Clock * Ernst Ruska, (1906-1988), Germany - electron microscope S * Alexander Sablukov, (1783-1857), Russia - centrifugal fan * Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu, (1385-1468), Turkey - illustrated surgical atlas * Andrei Sakharov, (1921-1989), Russia - invented explosively pumped flux compression generator, co-developed the Tsar Bomb and tokamak * Ibn Samh, (c. 1020), Middle East - mechanical geared astrolabe * Franz San Galli, (1824-1908), Poland/Russia (Italian and German descent) - radiator, modern central heating * Alberto Santos-Dumont, (1873-1932), Brazil - non-rigid airship and airplane * Arthur William Savage, (1857-1938) - radial tires, gun magazines, Savage Model 99 lever action rifle * Thomas Savery, (1650-1715), England - steam engine * Adolphe Sax, (1814-1894), Belgium - saxophone * Bela Schick, (1877-1967), Hungary - diphtheria test * Pavel Schilling, (1780-1836), Estonia/Russia - first electromagnetic telegraph, mine with an electric fuse * Christian Schnabel (1878-1936), German - simplistic food cutleries * Kees A. Schouhamer Immink (1946- ), Netherlands - Major contributor to development of Compact Disc * August Schrader, U.S. - Schrader valve for Pneumatic tire * David Schwarz, (1852-1897), Croatia, - rigid ship, later called Zeppelin * Marc Seguin, (1786-1875), France - wire-cable suspension bridge * Henry White Seeley, (1832-1903), US-pressing iron * Sennacherib, (705-681 BC), Iraq (Mesopotamia) - screw pump * Iwan Serrurier, (active 1920s), Netherlands/U.S. - inventor of the Moviola for film editing * Mark Serrurier, (190?-1988), U.S. - Serrurier truss for Optical telescopes * Gerhard Sessler, (1931-), Germany - foil electret microphone, silicon microphone * Guy Severin, (1926-2008), Russia - extra-vehicular activity supporting system * Leonty Shamshurenkov, (1687-1758), Russia - first self-propelling carriage (a precursor to both bicycle and automobile), projects of an original odometer and self-propelling sledge * Ibn al-Shatir, (1304-1375), Syria - "jewel box" device which combined a compass with a universal sundial * Shen Kuo, (1031-1095), China - improved gnomon, armillary sphere, clepsydra, and sighting tube * Murasaki Shikibu, (c. 973-1025), Japan - novel, psychological novel * Pyotr Shilovsky, (1871 - after 1924), Russia/United Kingdom - gyrocar * Fathullah Shirazi, (c. 1582), Mughal India - autocannon, multi-barrel gun * William Bradford Shockley, (1910-1989), U.S. - co-inventor of transistor * Henry Shrapnel, (1761-1842), England - Shrapnel shell ammunition * Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor, (b. 1972), Malaysia - cell growth in outer space, crystallization of proteins and microbes in space * Vladimir Shukhov, (1853-1939), Russia - thermal cracking (Shukhov cracking process), thin-shell structure, tensile structure, hyperboloid structure, gridshell, modern oil pipeline, cylindric oil depot * Augustus Siebe, (1788-1872), Germany/England - Inventor of the standard diving dress * Werner von Siemens, (1816-1892), Germany - an electromechanical "dynamic" * Sir William Siemens, (1823-1883), Germany - regenerative furnace * Al-Sijzi, (c. 945-1020), Persia/Iran - heliocentric astrolabe * Igor Sikorsky, (1889-1972), Russia/U.S. - first four-engine fixed-wing aircraft (Russky Vityaz), first airliner and purpose-designed bomber (Ilya Muromets), modern helicopter, Sikorsky-series helicopters * Kia Silverbrook, (1958-), Australia - Memjet printer, world's most prolific inventor * Vladimir Simonov, (born 1935), Russia - APS Underwater Assault Rifle, SPP-1 underwater pistol * Charles Simonyi, (1948-), Hungary - Hungarian notation * Ibn Sina (Avicenna), (973-1037), Persia/Iran - steam distillation, essential oil, pharmacopoeia, clinical pharmacology, clinical trial, randomized controlled trial, quarantine, cancer surgery, cancer therapy, pharmacotherapy, phytotherapy, Hindiba, Taxus baccata L, calcium channel blocker * Isaac Singer, (1811-1875), U.S. - sewing machine * Nikolay Slavyanov, (1854-1897), Russia - shielded metal arc welding * Alexander Smakula, (1900-1983), Ukraine/Russia/U.S. - anti-reflective coating * Yefim Smolin, Russia - table-glass (stakan granyonyi) * Igor Spassky, (1926-), Russia - Sea Launch platform * Elmer Ambrose Sperry, (1860-1930), U.S. - gyroscope-guided automatic pilot * Ladislas Starevich, (1882-1965), Russia/France - puppet animation, live-action/animated film * Boris Stechkin, (1891-1969), Russia - co-developer of Sikorsky Ilya Muromets and Tsar Tank, developer of Soviet heat and aircraft engines * George Stephenson, (1781-1848), England - steam railway * Simon Stevin, (1548-1620), Netherlands - land yacht * Reverend Dr Robert Stirling (1790-1878), Scotland - Stirling engine * Aurel Stodola, (1859-1942), Slovakia - gas turbines * Aleksandr Stoletov, (1839-1896), Russia - first solar cell based on the outer photoelectric effect * Levi Strauss, (1829-1902), U.S. - blue jeans * John Stringfellow, (1799-1883), England - airplane * Almon Strowger, (1839-1902), U.S. - automatic telephone exchange * Su Song, (1020-1101), China - first chain drive * Pavel Sukhoi, (1895-1975), Russia - Su-series fighter aircraft * Simon Sunatori, (1959-), Canada - inventor of MagneScribe and Magic Spicer * Sushruta, (600 BC), Vedic India - inventor of Platic Surgery, Cataract Surgery, Rhinoplasty * Joseph Swan, (1828-1914), England - Incandescent light bulb * Percy Spencer, (1894-1970), U.S. - microwave oven * Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi), (903-986), Persia/Iran - timekeeping astrolabe, navigational astrolabe, surveying astrolabe * Robert Swanson, (1905-1994), Canada - Invented and developed the first multi-chime air horn for use with diesel locomotives * Andrei Sychra, (1773-76 - 1850), Lithuania/Russia, Czech descent - Russian seven-string guitar * Vladimir Syromyatnikov, (1933-2006), Russia - Androgynous Peripheral Attach System and other spacecraft docking mechanisms * Leó Szilárd, (1898-1964), Hungary/U.S. - Co-developed the atomic bomb, patented the nuclear reactor, catalyst of the Manhattan Project T * Salih Tahtawi, (fl.1659-1660), Mughal India - seamless globe and celestial globe * Igor Tamm, (1895-1971), Russia - co-developer of tokamak * Taqi al-Din, (1526-1585), Syria/Egypt/Turkey - steam turbine, six-cylinder 'Monobloc' suction pump, framed sextant * Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi, (c. 1187), Middle East - counterweight trebuchet, mangonel * Bernard Tellegen, (1900-1990), Netherlands - pentode * Edward Teller, (1908-2003), Hungary - hydrogen bomb * Nikola Tesla, (1856-1943), Croatian Serb, citizenship:Austrian Empire (pre-1891), American (post-1891) - Tesla Coil, induction motor, wireless communication * Léon Theremin, (1896-1993), Russia - theremin, interlace, burglar alarm, terpsitone, Rhythmicon (first drum machine), The Thing (listening device) * Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar, (1785-1870), France - Arithmometer * Eric Tigerstedt, (1887-1925), Finland - triode vacuum tube * Kalman Tihanyi, (1897-1947), Hungary - co-inventor of cathode ray tube and iconoscope * Mikhail Tikhonravov, (1900-1974), Russia - co-developer of Sputnik 1 (the first artificial satellite) together with Korolyov and Keldysh, designer of further Sputniks * Gavriil Adrianovich Tikhov, (1875-1960), Russia - feathering spectrograph * Benjamin Chew Tilghman, (1821-1897), U.S. - sandblasting * Tipu Sultan, (1750-1799), India - iron-cased rocket * Fedor Tokarev, (1871-1968), Russia - TT-33 semiautomatic handgun and SVT-40 self-loading rifle * Alfred Traeger, (1895-1980), Australia - the pedal radio * Richard Trevithick, (1771-1833), England - high-pressure steam engine, first full-scale steam locomotive * Franc Trkman, (1903-1978), Slovenia - electrical switches, accessories for opening windows * Yuri Trutnev, (1927-), Russia - co-developer of the Tsar Bomb * Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, (1857-1935), Russia - spaceflight * Mikhail Tsvet, (1872-1919), Russia - chromatography (specifically adsorption chromatography, the first chromatography method) * Ibn Tufail, (c. 1105-1185), Islamic Spain - philosophical novel * Alexei Tupolev, (1925-2001), Russia - the Tupolev Tu-144 (first supersonic passenger jet) * Andrei Tupolev, (1888-1972), Russia - turboprop powered long-range airliner (Tupolev Tu-114), turboprop strategic bomber (Tupolev Tu-95) * Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, (1201-1274), Persia/Iran - observatory, research institute * Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī, (1135-1213), Persia/Iran - linear astrolabe U * Lewis Urry, (1927-2004), Canada - long-lasting alkaline battery * Vladimir Utkin, (1923-2000), Russia - railcar-launched ICBM (RT-23 Molodets) V * Vladimir Sergeyevich Vakhmistrov, (1897-1972), Russia - first bomber with a parasite aircraft (Zveno project) * Theophilus Van Kannel, (1841-1919), United States - revolving door (1888) * Viktor Vasnetsov, (1848-1926), Russia - budenovka military hat * Vladimir Veksler, (1907-1966), Russia - synchrophasotron, co-inventor of synchrotron * John Venn, (1834-1923), England - Venn diagram (1881) * Pierre Vernier, (1580-1637), France - vernier scale (1631) * Dmitry Vinogradov, (c.1720-5 - 1758), Russia - original Russian hard-paste porcelain (together with Mikhail Lomonosov) * Louis R. Vitullo, (1924?-2006), United States - developed the first sexual assault evidence kit * Alessandro Volta, (1745-1827), Italy - battery * Faust Vrančić, (1551-1617), Croatia - parachute * Traian Vuia, (1872-1950), Romania - designed, built, and tested one of the earlier aircraft in 1906. Vuia reportedly flew to a height of 1 Meter and was able to stay aloft for 20 Meters. * Ivan Vyrodkov, (? - 1563-64), Russia - battery tower [edit] W * Paul Walden, (1863-1957), Latvia/Russia/Germany - Walden inversion, Ethylammonium nitrate (the first room temperature ionic liquid) * Barnes Wallis, (1887-1979), England - bouncing bomb * Robert Watson-Watt, (1892-1973), Scotland - microwave radar * James Watt, (1736-1819), Scotland - improved Steam engine * Thomas Wedgwood, (1771-1805), England - first (not permanent) photograph * Jonas Wenström, (1855-1893), Sweden - three-phase electrical power * George Westinghouse, (1846-1914), U.S. - Air brake (rail) * Charles Wheatstone, (1802-1875), England - concertina, stereoscope, microphone, Playfair cipher * Eli Whitney, (1765-1825), U.S. - the cotton gin * Frank Whittle, (1907-1996), England - co-inventor of the jet engine * Otto Wichterle, (1913-1989), Czechoslovakia - invented modern contact lenses * Paul Winchell, (1922-2005), U.S. - the artificial heart * A. Baldwin Wood, (1879-1956), U.S. - high volume pump * Granville Woods, (1856-1910), U.S. - the Synchronous Multiplex Railway Telegraph * Wright brothers, Orville (1871-1948) and Wilbur (1867-1912) - U.S. - powered airplane * Arthur Wynne, (1862-1945), England - creator of crossword puzzle Y * Pavel Yablochkov, (1847-1894), Russia - Yablochkov candle (first commercially viable electric carbon arc lamp) * Hidetsugu Yagi, (1886-1976), Japan - Yagi antenna * Alexander Yakovlev, (1906-1989), Russia - Yak-series aircraft, including Yakovlev Yak-40 (the first regional jet) * Khalid ibn Yazid, (635-704), Syria/Egypt - potassium nitrate * Yi Xing, (683-727), China - astronomical clock * Gazi Yasargil, (1925- ), Turkey - Microneurosurgery * Arthur M. Young, (1905-1995), U.S. - the Bell Helicopter * Vladimir Yourkevitch, (1885-1964), Russia/France/U.S. - modern ship hull design * Sergei Yudin, (1891-1954), Russia - cadaveric blood transfusion and other medical operations * Muhammad Yunus, (b. 1940), Bangladesh - microcredit, microfinance * Abu Yaqub Yusuf, (c. 1274), Morocco/Spain - siege cannon * Linus Yale, Jr., (1821-1868), U.S. - cylinder lock * Linus Yale, Sr., (1797-1858), U.S. - pin tumbler lock Z * Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis), (936-1013), Islamic Spain - catgut surgical suture, various surgical instruments and dental devices * Alexander Zalmanov, (1875-1965), Russia - turpentine bath * Ludwik Łazarz Zamenhof, (1859-1917) Russia/Poland - Esperanto * Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Arzachel), (1028-1087), Islamic Spain - almanac, equatorium, universal astrolabe * Yevgeny Zavoisky, (1907-1976), Russia - EPR spectroscopy, co-developer of NMR spectroscopy * Nikolay Zelinsky, (1861-1953), Russia - the first effective filtering coal gas mask in the world * Zhang Heng, (78-139), China - invented the first hydraulic-powered armillary sphere * Zheng He, (1371-1433), China - treasure ship * Nikolai Zhukovsky, (1847-1921), Russia - an early wind tunnel, co-developer of the Tsar Tank * Ziryab, (789-857), Iraq/Syria/Tunisia/Spain - bangs, beauty parlour, cosmetology school, chemical depilatory, toothpaste, under-arm deodorant, three-course meal * Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar), (1091-1161), Islamic Spain - general anaesthesia, general anaesthetic, oral anesthesia, inhalational anaesthetic, narcotic-soaked sponge, tracheotomy, parasitology, pharmacopoeia * Konrad Zuse, (22 June 1910-18 December 1995), Germany - invented the first Computer (Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4) * Vasily Zvyozdochkin, (1876-1956), Russia - matryoshka doll (together with Sergey Malyutin) * Vladimir Zworykin, (1889-1982), Russia/U.S. - Iconoscope, kinescope.

Chemical industries Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), the "father of chemistry", invented the alembic still and many chemicals, including distilled alcohol, and established the perfume industry. Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi (Rhazes) isolated many chemical substances, produced many medications, and described many laboratory apparatus. Laboratory setup for steam distillation, invented by Avicenna in the 11th century. Aqua regia was first isolated by Geber. Hydrochloric acid, a mineral acid, was first isolated by Geber. Nitric acid, a mineral acid, was first isolated by Geber. Sulfuric acid, a mineral acid, was first isolated by Geber. Arsenic, a chemical element, was first isolated by Geber in the 8th century. Coloured stained glass windows in the Nasir al-Mulk mosque in Shiraz, Iran. See also: Alchemy and chemistry in Islam Early forms of distillation were known to the Babylonians, Greeks and Egyptians since ancient times, but it was Muslim chemists who first invented pure distillation processes which could fully purify chemical substances. They also developed several different variations of distillation (such as dry distillation, destructive distillation and steam distillation) and introduced new distillation aparatus (such as the alembic, still, and retort), and invented a variety of new chemical processes and over 9,000 chemical substances.[2] Will Durant wrote in The Story of Civilization IV: The Age of Faith:"Chemistry as a science was almost created by the Moslems; for in this field, where the Greeks (so far as we know) were confined to industrial experience and vague hypothesis, the Saracens introduced precise observation, controlled experiment, and careful records. They invented and named the alembic (al-anbiq), chemically analyzed innumerable substances, composed lapidaries, distinguished alkalis and acids, investigated their affinities, studied and manufactured hundreds of drugs. Alchemy, which the Moslems inherited from Egypt, contributed to chemistry by a thousand incidental discoveries, and by its method, which was the most scientific of all medieval operations."[3] Robert Briffault wrote in The Making of Humanity:"Chemistry, the rudiments of which arose in the processes employed by Egyptian metallurgists and jewellers combining metals into various alloys and 'tinting' them to resemble gold, processes long preserved as a secret monopoly of the priestly colleges, and clad in the usual mystic formulas, developed in the hands of the Arabs into a widespread, organized passion for research which led them to the invention of distillation, sublimation, filtration, to the discovery of alcohol, of nitric and sulphuric acids (the only acid known to the ancients was vinegar), of the alkalis, of the salts of mercury, of antimony and bismuth, and laid the basis of all subsequent chemistry and physical research."[4] [edit] Chemical processes The following chemical processes were invented by Muslim chemists: Assation (or roasting), cocotion (or digestion), ceration, lavage, solution, mixture, and fixation.[5] Calcination (al-tashwiya): Invented by Geber.[6][7] Crystallization (al-tabalwur): Invented by Geber.[8] Distillation, pure (al-taqtir): Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan) was the first to fully purify chemical substances through distillation, using the alembic, in the 8th century.[4] Destructive distillation: Invented by Muslim chemists in the 8th century to produce tar from petroleum.[9] Dry distillation Filtration (al-tarshih): Invented by Geber.[4] Liquefaction, purification, oxidisation, and evaporation (tabkhir): Invented by Geber.[10] Solution (al-tahlil), sublimation (al-tas'id), amalgamation (al-talghim), ceration (al-tashmi), and a method of converting a substance into a thick paste or fusible solid.[6] Steam distillation: Invented by Avicenna in the early 11th century for the purpose of producing essential oils.[11][citation needed] Water purification [edit] Chemical substances Arsenic, alkali, alkali salt, borax, and pure sal ammoniac: Isolated by Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan) in the 8th century.[7] Cheese glue and plated mail: Invented by Geber.[12] Derivative and artificial chemical substances: In the 10th century, Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi wrote that he and his Muslim predecessors (Calid, Geber and al-Kindi) invented the following derivative and artificial substances: lead(II) oxide (PbO), red lead (Pb3O4), tin(II) oxide (Isfidaj), copper acetate (Zaniar), copper(II) oxide (CuO), lead sulfide, zinc oxide, bismuth oxide, antimony oxide, iron rust, iron acetate, Daws (a contituent of steel), cinnabar (HgS), arsenic trioxide (As2O3), alkali (al-Qili), sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), and Qalimiya (anything that separates from metals during their purification).[13] Ethanol and pure ammonia: Isolated by Arabic chemists.[14] Lead carbonatic: Isolated by Geber.[15] Medicinal substances: Muslim chemists discovered 2,000 medicinal substances.[2] Potassium nitrate, pure: Isolated by Hasan al-Ramah in the 1270s.[7] Rose water: First produced by Muslim chemists in the medieval Islamic world through the distillation of roses, for use in the drinking and perfumery industries.[7] Sal nitrum: Isolated by Geber.[7] Acids Aqua regia: Isolated by Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan) in the 8th century.[7] Carboxylic acids: Geber isolated Acetic acid from vinegar.[8][16] He is also credited with the discovery and isolation of Citric acid, the sour component of lemons and other unripe fruits.[8] Mineral acids: The mineral acids-nitric acid, sulfuric acid, and hydrochloric acid-were first isolated by Geber.[17] He originally referred to sulfuric acid as the oil of vitriol.[7][14][18] Organic acids: Geber isolated Uric acid.[10] He also isolated Tartaric acid from wine-making residues.[8] Elements Arsenic: Isolated by Geber in the 8th century.[15] Antimony: Isolated by Geber.[4][15] [edit] Food and drink Coffee: Produced by Khalid in Kaffa, Ethiopia, in the 9th century.[10] Confectionery: Due to advances in sugar production and the invention of sugar refineries, this led to the production of early confectioneries by the Arabs.[19] Distilled water and water purification: Purified by Muslim chemists.[14] Pure distilled alcohol and ethanol: First isolated by Al-Kindi (Alkindus) in the 9th century.[7][20] Ahmad Y Hassan wrote: "The distillation of wine and the properties of alcohol were known to Islamic chemists from the eighth century. The prohibition of wine in Islam did not mean that wine was not produced or consumed or that Arab alchemists did not subject it to their distillation processes. Jabir ibn Hayyan described a cooling technique which can be applied to the distillation of alcohol."[21] Restaurant and three-course meal: The earliest restaurants came into existence throughout the Islamic world from the 10th century, shortly before restaurants appeared in China in the 11th century. The Islamic world had "restaurants where one could purchase all sorts of prepared dishes." These restaurants were mentioned by Al-Muqaddasi (born 945) in the late 10th century.[22] Restaurants in medieval Islamic Spain served three-course meals, which was earlier introduced in the 9th century by Ziryab, who insisted that meals should be served in three separate courses consisting of soup, the main course, and dessert.[23] Rose water: See Chemical substances above. Sugar refinery: See Industrial milling below. [edit] Glass industry Artificial gemstone: Geber (d. 815) first described the production of high-quality coloured glass cut into artificial gemstones.[24][25] Artificial pearl and purification of pearls: In his Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuna (The Book of the Hidden Pearl), Jabir described the first recipes for the manufacture of artificial pearls and for the purification of pearls that were discoloured from the sea or from grease.[26] Coloured stained glass windows: Muslim architects in Southwest Asia were the first to produce stained glass windows using coloured glass rather than stone producing a stained glass-like effect, as was the case in early churches. In the 8th century, the Arab chemist Geber scientifically described 46 original recipes for producing high-purity coloured glass in Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuna (The Book of the Hidden Pearl), in addition to 12 recipes inserted by al-Marrakishi in a later edition of the book.[24][25] Concave, convex and spherical mirrors: Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) gave the earliest accurate descriptions of concave and convex mirrors in both cylindrical and spherical geometries,[27] and he also gave the earliest accurate description of spherical mirrors.[28] Dying and artificial colouring of gemstones and pearls: In The Book of the Hidden Pearl, Geber described the first recipes for the dying and artificial colouring of gemstones and pearls.[26] Glass factory: The first industrial complex for glass and pottery production was built in Ar-Raqqah, Syria, in the 8th century. Extensive experimentation was carried out at the complex, which was two kilometres in length, and a variety of innovative high-purity glass were developed there. Two other similar complexes have also been discovered, and nearly three hundred new chemical recipes for glass are known to have been produced at all three sites.[29] The first glass factories were thus built by Muslim craftsmen in the Islamic world. The first glass factories in Europe were later built in the 11th century by Egyptian craftsmen in Corinth, Greece.[17] Quartz glass and Silica glass: The production of glass from stone (including quartz) and sand, was pioneered by Abbas Ibn Firnas in the 9th century.[30] Parabolic mirror: Invented by Ibn Sahl in the 10th century.[31] These observations were repeated by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics (1021).[28] [edit] Military technology See also: Alchemy and chemistry in Islam A picture of a 15th century Granadian siege cannon from the book Al-izz wal rifa'a. The Ottoman Janissary corps were using matchlock muskets since the 1440s. They are depicted battling the Knights Hospitaller in this 1522 painting. Damascus steel: One of the most famous steels produced in the medieval Near East was Damascus steel used for swordmaking, and mostly produced in Damascus, Syria, in the period from 900 to 1750. This was produced using the crucible steel method, based on the earlier Indian wootz steel. This process was further refined in the Middle East using locally produced steels. The process allowed carbides to precipitate out as micro particles arranged in sheets or bands within the body of a blade. The carbides are far harder than the surrounding low carbon steel, allowing the swordsmith to make an edge which would cut hard materials with the precipitated carbides, while the bands of softer steel allowed the sword as a whole to remain tough and flexible. A team of researchers based at the Technical University of Dresden that uses x-rays and electron microscopy to examine Damascus steel discovered the presence of cementite nanowires[32] and carbon nanotubes.[33] Peter Paufler, a member of the Dresden team, says that these nanostructures give Damascus steel its distinctive properties[34] and are a result of the forging process.[34][35] Dissolved talc: Egyptian soldiers at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 were the first to smear dissolved talc (from Arabic talq) on their hands, as forms of fire protection from gunpowder.[36] Fireproof clothing: Asbestos may have possibly been used as a form of fire protection by the ancient Chinese and Greeks. However, it was Egyptian soldiers at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 who were the first to wear fireproof clothing to protect themselves from gunpowder fires as well as chemicals in gunpowder warfare. Their fireroof protective clothing consisted of a silk tunic (still worn by Formula 1 drivers underneath their Nomex fire suits), aketon (from the Arabic al-qutn "the cotton"), and mainly a woolen overtunic that protects against fires and chemical weapons], similar to the clothing worn by modern soldiers for protection against biological, chemical and nuclear weapons. Due to the effectiveness of their fireproof clothing, the Egyptian soldiers were able to attach gunpowder cartridges and incendiary devices to their clothing. Gunpowder cartridge: Gunpowder cartridges were first employed by the Egyptians, for use in their fire lances and hand cannons against the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260.[36] Hand cannon, handgun, and small arms: The first portable hand cannons (midfa) loaded with explosive gunpowder, the first example of a handgun and portable firearm, were used by the Egyptians to repel the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, and again in 1304. The gunpowder compositions used for the cannons at these battles were later described in several manuscripts in the early 14th century. According to Shams al-Din Muhammad (d. 1327), the cannons had an explosive gunpowder composition (74% saltpetre, 11% sulfur, 15% carbon) almost identical to the ideal compositions for explosive gunpowder used in modern times (75% saltpetre, 10% sulfur, 15% carbon).[36] Matchlock: The Janissary corps of the Ottoman army were using matchlock muskets as early as the 1440s.[37] The first dated illustration of a matchlock mechanism in Europe dates to 1475. Purified potassium nitrate: Muslim chemists were the first to purify potassium nitrate (saltpetre; natrun or barud in Arabic) to the weapons-grade purity for use in gunpowder, as potassium nitrate needs to be purified to be used effectively. This purification process was first described by Ibn Bakhtawayh in his al-Muqaddimat in 1029. The first complete purification process for potassium nitrate is described in 1270 by the Arab chemist and engineer Hasan al-Rammah of Syria in his book al-Furusiyya WA al-Manasib al-Harbiyya ('The Book of Military Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices', a.k.a. the Treatise on Horsemanship and Stratagems of War). He first described the use of potassium carbonate (in the form of wood ashes) to remove calcium and magnesium salts from the potassium nitrate.[36][38] Hasan al-Rammah also describes the purifying of saltpetre using the chemical processes of solution and crystallization, and this was the first clear method for the purification of saltpetre.[39] Bert S. Hall,[40] however, disputes the efficacy of al-Rammah's formula for the purification of potassium nitrate. [edit] Oil industry Essential oil: Invented by Abū Alī ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) in the 11th century.[11] Kerosene and kerosene lamp: Invented by Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi in the 9th century.[41] Oil field, petroleum industry, naphtha, and tar: An early petroleum industry was established in the 8th century, when the streets of Baghdad were paved with tar, derived from petroleum through destructive distillation. In the 9th century, oil fields were first exploited in the area around modern Baku, Azerbaijan, to produce naphtha. These fields were described by al-Masudi in the 10th century, and by Marco Polo in the 13th century, who described the output of its oil wells as hundreds of shiploads.[9] Petrol: Muslim chemists were the first to produce petrol from crude oil.[42] [edit] Pottery Main article: Islamic pottery Tin-glazed Hispano-Moresque ware with lusterware decoration, from Spain circa 1475. Albarello: An albarello is a type of maiolica earthenware jar originally designed to hold apothecaries' ointments and dry drugs. The development of this type of pharmacy jar had its roots in the Islamic Middle East. Brought to Italy by Hispano-Moresque traders, the earliest Italian examples were produced in Florence in the 15th century. Hispano-Moresque ware: This was a style of Islamic pottery created in Islamic Spain, after the Moors had introduced two ceramic techniques to Europe: glazing with an opaque white tin-glaze, and painting in metallic lusters. Hispano-Moresque ware was distinguished from the pottery of Christendom by the Islamic character of it decoration.[43] Lusterware: Invented by Geber, who applied it to ceramic glazes in the 8th century.[44] The technique soon became popular in Persia from the 9th century, and lusterware was later produced in Egypt during the Fatimid caliphate in the 10th-12th centuries. While the production of lusterware continued in the Middle East, it spread to Europe-first to Al-Andalus, notably at Malaga, and then to Italy, where it was used to enhance maiolica. Pottery factory: The first industrial complex for glass and pottery production was built in Ar-Raqqah, Syria, in the 8th century. Extensive experimentation was carried out at the complex, which was two kilometres in length. Two other similar complexes have also been discovered.[29] Stonepaste ceramic: Invented in 9th-century Iraq,[45] it was a vitreous or semivitreous ceramic ware of fine texture, made primarily from non-refactory fire clay.[46] Tin-glazing: The tin-glazing of ceramics was invented by Muslim potters in 8th-century Basra, Iraq. Tin-opacified glazing was one of the earliest new technologies developed by the Islamic potters. The first examples of this technique can be found as blue-painted ware in 8th-century Basra.[47] Tin-glazed pottery: The earliest tin-glazed pottery appears to have been made in Iraq in the 9th century, the oldest fragments having been excavated during the First World War from the palace of Samarra about fifty miles north of Baghdad.[48] From there, it spread to Egypt, Persia and Spain, before reaching Italy in the Renaissance, Holland in the 16th century, and England, France and other European countries shortly after. [edit] Civil engineering The interiors of the Alhambra in Spain are decorated with arabesque designs. The minaret is a distinct feature of Islamic architecture. The spiralling minaret located at the Great Mosque of Samarra, Iraq built in 852, is one of the oldest. At 72.5 meters, the Qutab Minar was the tallest minaret until the 20th century, and remains the tallest brick and stone minaret in the world. The tallest minaret is currently the one at Hassan II Mosque, at 210 metres (689 ft) tall, pictured above. An illustration of patterned Girih tiles, found in Islamic architecture dating back over five centuries ago. These featured the first quasicrystal patterns and self-similar fractal quasicrystalline tilings. The norias in Hama on the Orontes River in Syria. The flywheel was first employed in a noria by Ibn Bassal in the 11th century. The first windmills were built in the Islamic world and introduced to Europe through Spain. During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, the early Muslim Arab Empire was ahead of its time regarding domestic water systems such as water cleaning systems and advanced water transportation systems resulting in better agriculture, something that helped in issues related to Islamic hygienical jurisprudence.[49] Al-Jazari invented a variety of machines for raising water in 1206,[50] as well as water mills and water wheels with cams on their axle used to operate automata in the late 12th century.[51] Kerosene lamp, and litter collection facilities: Cordoba had the first facilities and waste containers for litter collection.[52] The first kerosene lamp was invented by Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi in the 9th century.[41] Surveying instruments: Muslim engineers invented a variety of surveying instruments for accurate levelling, including a wooden board with a plumb line and two hooks, an equilateral triangle with a plumb line and two hooks, and a "reed level". They also invented a rotating alidade used for accurate alignment, and a surveying astrolabe used for alignment, measuring angles, triangulation, finding the width of a river, and the distance between two points separated by an impassable obstruction.[53] Tar roads and pavements: Tar was a vital component of the first sealed tarmac roads. The streets of Baghdad were the first to be paved with tar from the 8th century AD. Tar was derived from petroleum, accessed from oil fields in the region, through the chemical process of destructive distillation.[9] Ventillator: The first ventillators were invented in Islamic Egypt and were widely used in many houses throughout Cairo during the Middle Ages. These ventillators were later described in detail by Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi in 1200, who reported that almost every house in Cairo has a ventillator, and that they cost anywhere from 1 to 500 dinars depending on their sizes and shapes. Most ventillators in the city were oriented towards the Qibla (the direction of Mecca), as was the city in general.[54] [edit] Architecture Acequia: A community operated waterway used in Spain and former Spanish colonies in the Americas for irrigation, they were first introduced by the Moors in Al-Andalus before the 13th century.[17] Arabesque: An elaborative application of repeating geometric forms often found decorating the walls of mosques. Geometric artwork in the form of the Arabesque was not used in the Middle East or Mediterranean Basin until the Islamic Golden Age. Euclidean geometry as expounded on by Al-Abbās ibn Said al-Jawharī (ca. 800-860) in his Commentary on Euclid's Elements, the trigonometry of Aryabhata and Brahmagupta as elaborated on by Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (ca. 780-850), and the development of spherical geometry[55] by Abū al-Wafā' al-Būzjānī (940-998) and spherical trigonometry by Al-Jayyani (989-1079)[56] for determining the Qibla (direction to Mecca) and times of Salah prayers and Ramadan,[55] all served as an impetus for the art form that was to become the Arabesque. Bridge dam: The bridge dam was used to power a water wheel working a water-raising mechanism. The first was built in Dezful, Iran, which could raise 50 cubits of water for the water supply to all houses in the town. Similar bridge dams later appeared in other parts of the Islamic world.[57] Central heating through underfloor pipes: The hypocaust heating system used by the Romans continued to be in use around the Mediterranean region during late Antiquity and by the Umayyad caliphate. By the 12th century, Muslim engineers in Syria introduced an improved central heating system, where heat travelled through underfloor pipes from the furnace room, rather than through a hypocaust. This central heating system was widely used in bath-houses throughout the medieval Islamic world.[58] Cobwork: The earliest appearance of cobwork (tabya) dates back to the Maghreb and Al-Andalus in the 11th century, and was first described in detail by Ibn Khaldun in the 14th century, who regarded it as a characteristically Muslim practice. Cobwork later spread to other parts of Europe from the 12th century onwards.[59] Geared and hydropowered water supply system: Al-Jazari developed the earliest water supply system to be driven by gears and hydropower, which was built in 13th century Damascus to supply water to its mosques and Bimaristan hospitals. The system had water from a lake turn a scoop-wheel and a system of gears which transported jars of water up to a water channel that led to mosques and hospitals in the city.[60] Girih tiles, quasicrystal pattern, and self-similar fractal quasicrystalline tiling: Geometrical quasicrystal patterns were first employed in the girih tiles found in medieval Islamic architecture dating back over five centuries ago. In 2007, Professor Peter Lu of Harvard University and Professor Paul Steinhardt of Princeton University published a paper in the journal Science suggesting that girih tilings possessed properties consistent with self-similar fractal quasicrystalline tilings such as the Penrose tilings, predating them by five centuries.[61][62] High-rise roof garden: The medieval Egyptian city of Fustat had a number of high-rise buildings which Nasir Khusraw in the early 11th century described as rising up to 14 stories, with roof gardens on the top storey complete with ox-drawn water wheels for irrigating them.[63] Minaret: The minaret is a distinctive architectural feature of Islamic architecture, especially mosques, dating back to the early centuries of Islam. Minarets are generally tall spires with onion-shaped crowns, usually either free standing or much taller than any surrounding support structure. The tallest minaret in pre-modern times was the Qutub Minar, which was 72.5 meters (237.9 ft) tall and was built in the 12th century, and it remains the tallest brick and stone minaret in the world. The tallest minaret in modern times is the one at Hassan II Mosque, which is 210 metres (689 ft) tall and was built in 1986. [edit] Industrial milling See also: Muslim Agricultural Revolution A variety of industrial mills were active in the medieval Islamic world, including fulling mills, gristmills, hullers, paper mills, sawmills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, and windmills, many of which were original inventions by Muslim engineers. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from Al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.[64] These advances made it possible for many industrial operations that were previously driven by manual labour in ancient times to be driven by machinery instead in the Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe later laid the foundations for the Industrial Revolution in 18th century Europe.[65] Bridge mill: The bridge mill was a unique type of water mill that was built as part of the superstructure of a bridge. The earliest record of a bridge mill is from Cordoba, Spain in the 12th century.[66] Factory milling installation: The first factory milling installations were built by Muslim engineers throughout every city and urban community in the Islamic world. For example, the factory milling complex in 10th century Baghdad could produce 10 tonnes of flour] every day.[67] The first large milling installations in Europe were built in 12th century Islamic Spain.[68] Flywheel-driven noria: See Mechanical technology below. Fulling mill: The first references to fulling mills are reported in Persia from the 10th century. By the time of the Crusades in the 11th century, fulling mills were active throughout the Islamic world, from Islamic Spain and North Africa to Central Asia.[64] Geared and wind powered gristmills with trip hammers: The first geared gristmills[69] were invented by Muslim engineers in the Islamic world, and were used for grinding corn and other seeds to produce meals, and many other industrial uses such as fulling cloth, husking rice, papermaking, pulping sugarcane, and crushing metallic ores before extraction. Gristmills in the Islamic world were often made from both watermills and windmills. In order to adapt water wheels for gristmilling purposes, cams were used for raising and releasing trip hammers to fall on a material.[70] The first wind-powered gristmills driven by windmills were built in what are now Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran in the 9th and 10th centuries.[68] Hydropowered forge and finery forge: The first forge to be driven by a hydropowered water mill rather than manual labour, also known as a finery forge, was invented in 12th century Islamic Spain.[68] Paper mill: Paper was introduced into the Muslim world by Chinese prisoners after the Battle of Talas. Muslims made several improvements to papermaking, mainly the use of hydropower rather than manual labour to produce paper, and they built the first paper mills in Baghdad, Iraq, as early as 794. Papermaking was transformed from an art into a major industry as a result.[71][72] Stamp mill: Stamp mills were first used by miners in Samarkand from as early as 973. They were used in medieval Persia for the purpose of crushing ore. By the 11th century, stamp mills were in widespread use throughout the Islamic world, from Islamic Spain and North Africa to Central Asia.[64] Sugar refinery: The first sugar refineries were built by Muslim engineers.[64] They were first driven by water mills, and then windmills from the 9th and 10th centuries in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran.[68] Underground watermill: Other innovations that were unique to the Islamic world include the situation of watermills in the underground irrigation tunnels of a qanat and on the main canals of valley-floor irrigation systems.[68] Windmill: The first windmills were built in Sistan, Afghanistan, sometime between the 7th century and 9th century, as described by Muslim geographers. These were vertical axle windmills, which had long vertical driveshafts with rectangle shaped blades.[73] The first windmill may have been constructed as early as the time of the second Rashidun caliph Umar (634-644 AD), though some argue that this account may have been a 10th century amendment.[74] Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind corn and draw up water, and used in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries.[70] The first horizontal windmills were built in what are now Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran in the 9th and 10th centuries. They had a variety of uses, such as grinding grain, pumping water, and crushing sugar-cane.[68] A small primitive wind wheel operating an organ is described as early as the 1st century AD by Hero of Alexandria, marking probably the first instance of a wind powering machine in history.[75][76] Horizontal axle windmills of the type generally used today were developed in Northwestern Europe in the 1180s.[77] [edit] Cosmetics A number of hygienic cosmetics were invented by Muslim chemists, cosmetologists and physicians.[78] Cosmetic dentistry and tooth bleaching: In his Al-Tasrif (c. 1000), Abulcasis described methods for strengthening the gums and introduced the method of tooth bleaching using tooth whiteners.[79] Bangs: In the 9th century, Ziryab introduced a new hairstyle for women in Al-Andalus: a "shorter, shaped cut, with bangs on the forehead and the ears uncovered."[80] Beauty parlour and cosmetology school: In the 9th century, Ziryab opened the first beauty parlour and "cosmetology school" for women near Alcázar, Al-Andalus."[80] Chemical depilatory for hair removal: In the 9th century, Ziryab taught women in Al-Andalus "the shaping of eyebrows and the use of depilatories for removing body hair".[80] Hair care and hair dye: In his Al-Tasrif (c. 1000), Abulcasis first described hair dyes for changing human hair color to blond or black hair, and hair care for correcting kinky or curly hair.[79] Dyestuff was also created by earlier Muslim chemists.[81] Lipstick, solid: In 1000 CE, the Andalusian Arab cosmetologist Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis) invented solid lipsticks, which were perfumed stocks rolled and pressed in special molds, and he described them in his Al-Tasrif.[79] Pomade: Produced by Arabs.[14] [edit] Hygiene Hand cream and lotion, and suntan lotion[disambiguation needed]: In his Al-Tasrif (c. 1000), Abulcasis described the first hand creams and lotions, and the first early suntan lotions, describing their ingredients and benefits in depth.[79] Toothpaste, functional and pleasant: In the 9th century, the Persian musician and fashion designer Ziryab is known to have invented a type of toothpaste, which he popularized throughout Islamic Spain.[82] The exact ingredients of this toothpaste are not currently known,[80] but unlike the earlier Egyptian and Roman toothpastes, Ziryab's toothpaste was reported to have been both "functional and pleasant to taste."[82] In circa 1000, Abulcasis recommended a toothpaste made from cinnamon, nutmeg, cardamom and coriander leaves, as a remedy for bad breath resulting from eating garlic or onions.[79] [edit] Perfumery Perfume usage was recorded in the Arabian Peninsula since the 7th century, and Muslims made many advances in perfumery in the proceeding centuries. This included the extraction of numerous fragrances, as well as the cheap mass-production of incenses. Muslim scientists such as Al-Kindi elaborated a vast number of recipes for a wide range of perfumes, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Perfume industry: Established by Geber (Jabir) (b. 722, Iraq) and Al-Kindi (b. 801, Iraq).[83] Jabir developed many techniques, including distillation, evaporation and filtration, which enabled the collection of the odour of plants into a vapour that could be collected in the form of water or oil.[83] Al-Kindi carried out extensive research and experiments in combining various plants and other sources to produce a variety of scent products. Camphor: In the 9th century, the Arab chemist Al-Kindi (Alkindus) provided the earliest recipe for the production of camphor in his Kitab Kimiya' al-'Itr (Book of the Chemistry of Perfume).[84] Deodorants, under-arm and roll-on: In the 9th century, Ziryab invented under-arm deodorants in Al-Andalus.[23] In circa 1000, another under-arm deodorant was described in Al-Andalus by Abulcasis,[79] who also invented perfumed stocks, rolled and pressed in special moulds, similar to modern roll-on deodorants.[85] Extraction of fragrances through steam distillation: Introduced by Abū Alī ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) in the 11th century. Ghaliya: The preparation of a perfume called ghaliya, which contained musk, amber and other ingredients, and the use of various drugs and apparatus], was produced by al-Kindi. Musk and floral perfumes: Produced in the 11th-12th centuries in the Arabian Peninsula.[81] Jasmine and citrus perfumes: Muslims introduced new raw ingredients in perfumery, which were produced from different spices, herbals, and other fragrance materials, which are still used in modern perfumery. These included jasmine from South and Southeast Asia, and citrus fruits from East Asia. Rose water: See Chemical substances above. [edit] Institutions A number of important economic, educational, legal and scientific institutions previously unknown in the ancient world have their origins in the medieval Islamic world. Academic degree-granting university:[86] If the definition of a university is assumed to mean an institution of higher education and research which issues academic degrees at all levels (bachelor, master and doctorate) like in the modern sense of the word, then the medieval Madrasahs known as Jami'ah ("university" in Arabic) founded in the 9th century would be the first examples of such an institution.[87][88] The University of Al Karaouine in Fez, Morocco is thus recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records as the oldest degree-granting university in the world with its founding in 859 by Fatima al-Fihri.[89] Also in the 9th century, Bimaristan medical schools were founded in the medieval Islamic world, where medical degrees and diplomas were issued to students of Islamic medicine who were qualified to be a practicing Doctor of Medicine.[88][90] Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo, Egypt in 975, was a Jami'ah university which offered a variety of post-graduate degrees (Ijazah),[88] and had individual faculties[91] for a theological seminary, Islamic law and jurisprudence, Arabic grammar, Islamic astronomy, early Islamic philosophy, and logic in Islamic philosophy.[88] The modern academic robe worn by graduates was also adapted from the robe worn by the Alim (alumni).[92] Agency and Aval: The first agencies were the Hawala, mentioned in texts of Islamic jurisprudence as early as the 8th century. Hawala itself later influenced the development of the agency in common law and in civil laws such as the Aval in French law and the Avallo in Italian law. The words Aval and Avallo were themselves derived from Hawala. The transfer of debt, which was "not permissible under Roman law but became widely practiced in medieval Europe, especially in commercial transactions", was due to the large extent of the "trade conducted by the Italian cities with the Muslim world in the Middle Ages." The agency was also "an institution unknown to Roman law" as no "individual could conclude a binding contract on behalf of another as his agent." In Roman law, the "contractor himself was considered the party to the contract and it took a second contract between the person who acted on behalf of a principal and the latter in order to transfer the rights and the obligations deriving from the contract to him." On the other hand, Islamic law and the later common law "had no difficulty in accepting agency as one of its institutions in the field of contracts and of obligations in general."[93] Assize of novel disseisin and contract protected by the action of debt: According to Professor John Makdisi, the "royal English contract protected by the action of debt" has origins in "the Islamic Aqd", and "the English assize of novel disseisin" has origins in "the Islamic Istihqaq", in classical Maliki jurisprudence.[94] College: The origins of the college lie in the medieval Islamic world. The madrasah was a medieval Islamic college of law and theology, usually affiliated with a mosque, and was funded by early charitable trusts known as Waqf, the origins of the trust law.[87][95] Jury and jury trial: The closest predecessor to the English jury trial was the Lafif in the Maliki school of classical Islamic law and jurisprudence, which was developed between the 8th and 11th centuries. Like the English jury, the Islamic Lafif was a body of twelve members drawn from the neighborhood and sworn to tell the truth, who were bound to give a unanimous verdict, about matters "which they had personally seen or heard, binding on the judge, to settle the truth concerning facts in a case, between ordinary people, and obtained as of right by the plaintiff." According to John Makdisi, "no other institution in any legal institution studied to date shares all of these characteristics with the English jury."[94] The first observatories to serve as research institutes were built by Muslim astronomers. The most famous was the Maragheh observatory, the current status of which is pictured here. Observatory as a research institute: As opposed to a private observation post as was the case in ancient times,[96] the astronomical observatories in the Islamic world were the first true observatories, in the sense that they functioned as early research institutes, like modern observatories.[86] The Islamic observatory was the first specialized astronomical institution with its own scientific staff,[97] director, astronomical program,[96] large astronomical instruments, and building where astronomical research and observations are carried out. Islamic observatories were also the first to employ enormously large astronomical instruments in order to improve the accuracy of their observations.[97] Famous examples include the observatories at Baghdad and Ray, Iran, the Maragheh observatory, Ulugh Beg's observatory at Samarqand, and the Istanbul observatory of al-Din. Public library and lending library:[86] A number of distinct features of the modern library were introduced in the Islamic world, where libraries not only served as a collection of manuscripts as was the case in ancient libraries, but also as a public library and lending library, a centre for the instruction and spread of sciences and ideas, a place for meetings and discussions, and sometimes as a lodging for scholars or boarding school for pupils. The concept of the library catalogue was also introduced in medieval Islamic libraries, where books were organized into specific genres and categories.[98] Restaurant: See Food and drink above. Trust institution and charitable trust: The Waqf in Islamic law, which developed in the Islamic world from the 7th to 9th centuries, were the first charitable trust.[99] Every waqf was required to have a waqif (founder), mutawillis (trustee), qadi (judge) and beneficiaries.[100] Under both a waqf and a trust, "property is reserved, and its usufruct appropriated, for the benefit of specific individuals, or for a general charitable purpose; the corpus becomes inalienable; estates for life in favor of successive beneficiaries can be created" and "without regard to the law of inheritance or the rights of the heirs; and continuity is secured by the successive appointment of trustees or mutawillis."[101] [edit] Medical institutions See also: Bimaristan, Islamic medicine, and Islamic psychology Apothecary, Drugstore, and Pharmacy: The first drugstores and pharmacies were opened by Muslim pharmacists in Baghdad in 754,[2] while the first apothecary shops were also founded by Muslim practitioners at the time.[102] Medical school: The Islamic Bimaristans were not only hospitals, but also the first medical schools and universities to issue diplomas. The first of these institutions was opened in Baghdad during the time of Harun al-Rashid. They then appeared in Egypt from 872 and then in Islamic Spain, Persia and the Maghreb thereafter. Physicians and surgeons at Islamic hospital-universities gave lectures to medical students and diplomas were issued to students who completed their education and were qualified to be doctors of medicine.[103] Psychiatric hospital: The first psychiatric hospitals were built in the medieval Islamic world. The first of these were built built in Baghdad in 705, Fes in the early 8th century, and Cairo in 800.[104] Public hospital: The Islamic Bimaristans were the first free public hospitals, and replaced the healing temples and sleep temples found in ancient times.[86] They were hospital in the modern sense, an establishment where the ill were welcomed and cared for by qualified staff. In this way, Muslim physicians were the first to make a distinction between a hospital and other different forms of sleep and healing temples, hospices, assylums, lazarets and leper-houses, all of which in ancient times were more concerned with isolating the sick and the mad from society "rather than to offer them any way to a true cure." The medieval Bimaristan hospitals are thus considered "the first hospitals" in the modern sense of the word.[105] Quarantine: The discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases and the use of quarantine to limit the spread of contagious diseases was introduced by Avicenna in The Canon of Medicine (1025).[106] Geriatric medicine: Arabs were the first to write books on Geriatric medicine. [edit] Mechanical technology Al-Jazari invented the bayonet fitting, camshaft, bolted lock, laminate, paper model, calibrated orifice, sand casting, gate operator, linkage, water level, crank-driven and hydropowered saqiya chain pumps, double-action reciprocating piston suction pump, programmable humanoid robot band, programmable analog computer, flush mechanism, and automated servants. Al-Jazari's candle clock employed a bayonet fitting for the first time in 1206. Drawing of the self-trimming lamp in Ahmad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir's 9th century Arabic treatise on mechanical devices, the Book of Ingenious Devices. Diagram of a hydropowered water-raising machine from The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices by Al-Jazari in 1206. The double-action reciprocating suction piston pump with a valve and crankshaft-connecting rod mechanism, from a manuscript of Al-Jazari, considered to be a "father of modern day engineering". The programmable humanoid robot band of Al-Jazari, considered to be a "father of robotics". The programmable humanoid robot band designed by Al-Jazari in 1206. The hand washing automaton with a flush mechanism designed by Al-Jazari in 1206. Artificial thunder, lightning and weather simulation: Abbas Ibn Firnas invented an artificial weather simulation room, in which spectators saw stars and clouds, and were astonished by artificial thunder and lightning, which were produced by mechanisms hidden in his basement laboratory.[107][108] Bayonet fitting: Al-Jazari's candle clock in 1206 employed, for the first time, a bayonet fitting, a fastener mechanism still used in modern times.[109] Camshaft: The first known use of cams on a camshaft were invented in Iraq by Al-Jazari in 1206.[110] His camshaft was attached to a water wheel and was used to operate levers moving robotic musicians in his castle clock (see Analog computers below).[111] Bolted lock, and mechanical controls: According to Donald Routledge Hill, Al-Jazari first described several early mechanical controls, including "a large metal door...and a lock with four bolts."[70] Complex segmental and epicyclic gearing: Segmental gears ("a piece for receiving or communicating reciprocating motion from or to a cogwheel, consisting of a sector of a circular gear, or ring, having cogs on the periphery, or face."[112]) and epicyclic gears were both first invented by the 11th century Arab engineer Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi from Islamic Spain. He employed both these types of gears in the gear trains of his mechanical clocks. Simple gears have been known before him, but this was the the first known case of complex gears used to transmit high torque.[17] Segmental gears were also later employed by Al-Jazari in 1206. Professor Lynn Townsend White, Jr. wrote: "Segmental gears first clearly appear in Al-Jazari, in the West they emerge in Giovanni de Dondi's astronomical clock finished in 1364, and only with the great Sienese engineer Francesco di Giorgio (1501) did they enter the general vocabulary of European machine design."[113] Design and construction methods: According to Donald Routledge Hill, "We see for the first time in Al-Jazari's work several concepts important for both design and construction: the lamination of timber to minimize warping, the static balancing of wheels, the use of wooden templates (a kind of pattern), the use of paper models to establish designs, the calibration of orifices, the grinding of the seats and plugs of valves together with emery powder to obtain a watertight fit, and the casting of metals in closed mold boxes with sand."[70] Escapement mechanism in rotating wheel: Al-Jazari invented a method for controlling the speed of rotation of a wheel using an escapement mechanism in 1206.[114] Fountain pen: The earliest historical record of a reservoir fountain pen dates back to the 10th century. In 953, Al-Muizz Lideenillah, the caliph of Egypt, demanded a pen which would not stain his hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen which held ink in a reservoir and delivered it to the nib via gravity and capillary action. As recorded by Qadi al-Nu'man al-Tamimi (d. 974) in his Kitdb al-Majalis WA 'l-musayardt, al-Mu'izz instructed and commissioned the construction of a fountain reservoir pen.[115][116] Gate operator: The first automatic doors were created by Hero of Alexandria and Chinese engineers under Emperor Yang of Sui prior to Islam. This was followed by the first hydraulics-powered automatic gate operators, invented by Al-Jazari in 1206.[117] Al-Jazari also created automatic doors as part of one of his elaborate water clocks.[70] Intermittent working: The concept of minimizing intermittent working is first implied in one of al-Jazari's saqiya chain pumps, which was for the purpose of maximising the efficiency of the saqiya chain pump.[118] Metal block printing and printed amulet: Printing was known as tarsh in Arabic. After woodblock printing appeared in the Islamic world, which may have been adopted from China, a unique type of block printing was invented in Islamic Egypt during the 9th-10th centuries: print blocks made from metals such as tin, lead and cast iron, as well as stone, glass and clay. The first printed amulets were invented in the Islamic world, and were printed with Arabic calligraphy using metal block printing. This technique, however, appears to have had very little influence outside of the Muslim world, since metal and other non-wooden forms of block printing were unknown in China or Korea, which later developed metal movable type printing instead. Block printing later went out of use in Islamic Central Asia after movable type printing was introduced from China at least 100 years ago.[119] Metronome: According to Lynn Townsend White, Jr., the Andalusian polymath Abbas Ibn Firnas was the inventor of an early metronome in the 9th century.[30] On/off switch: The on/off switch, an important feedback control principle, was invented by Muslim engineers between the 9th and 12th centuries, and it was employed in a variety of automata and water clocks. The mechanism later had an influence on the development of the electric on/off switch which appeared in the 1950s.[120] In the 9th century, the Banū Mūsā brothers invented a number of automata (automatic machines) and mechanical devices, and they described a hundred such devices in their Book of Ingenious Devices. Some of their original inventions include: Automatic control[17] Feedback controller[121] Differential pressure[122] Fail-safe system[70] Float chamber[17] Hurricane lamp[70] Gas mask[70] Grab and Clamshell grab[70] Self-feeding lamp and self-trimming lamp: Invented by the eldest brother Ahmad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir.[70] Trick drinking vessels[70] Valve, plug valve,[70][121] and float valve.[121] In 1206, Al-Jazari also described over fifty mechanical devices in six different categories in The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, most of which he invented himself, along with construction drawings. Along with his other mechanical inventions described above, some of the other mechanical devices he first described include: phlebotomy measures, linkage, water level, and devices able to elevate water from shallow wells or flowing rivers.[50][51][123][124] [edit] Automata Mark E. Rosheim summarizes the advances in robotics made by Arab engineers as follows:"Unlike the Greek designs, these Arab examples reveal an interest, not only in dramatic illusion, but in manipulating the environment for human comfort. Thus, the greatest contribution the Arabs made, besides preserving, disseminating and building on the work of the Greeks, was the concept of practical application. This was the key element that was missing in Greek robotic science."[125] "The Arabs, on the other hand, displayed an interest in creating human-like machines for practical purposes but lacked, like other preindustrial societies, any real impetus to pursue their robotic science."[126] Mechanical singing bird automata: Caliph al-Mamun had a silver and golden tree in his palace in Baghdad in 827, which had the features of an automatic machine. There were metal birds that sang automatically on the swinging branches of this tree built by Muslim engineers at the time.[127][128] The Abbasid Caliph al-Muktadir also had a golden tree in his palace in Baghdad in 915, with birds on it flapping their wings and singing.[127][129] Programmable automatic flute player: The Banū Mūsā invented an automatic flute player which appears to have been the first programmable machine, and which they described in their Book of Ingenious Devices.[130] Programmable analog computer: See Analog computers below. Programmable humanoid robot band: Al-Jazari (1136-1206) created the first recorded designs of a programmable humanoid robot in 1206, as opposed to the non-programmable automata in ancient times. Al-Jazari's robot was originally a boat with four automatic musicians that floated on a lake to entertain guests at royal drinking parties. His mechanism had a programmable drum machine with pegs (cams) that bump into little levers that operate the percussion. The drummer could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns if the pegs were moved around.[131] According to Charles B. Fowler, the automata were a "robot band" which performed "more than fifty facial and body actions during each musical selection."[132] Hand washing automaton with flush mechanism: Al-Jazari invented a hand washing automaton first employing the flush mechanism now used in modern flush toilets. It features a female humanoid automaton standing by a basin filled with water. When the user pulls the lever, the water drains and the female automaton refills the basin.[133] Peacock fountain with automated humanoid servants: Al-Jazari's "peacock fountain" was a sophisticated hand washing device featuring humanoid automata as servants which offer soap and towels. Mark E. Rosheim describes it as follows: "Pulling a plug on the peacock's tail releases water out of the beak; as the dirty water from the basin fills the hollow base a float rises and actuates a linkage which makes a servant figure appear from behind a door under the peacock and offer soap. When more water is used, a second float at a higher level trips and causes the appearance of a second servant figure - with a towel!"[125] [edit] Pumps Crankshaft-driven and hydropowered saqiya chain pumps: The first known use of a crankshaft in a chain pump was in one of Al-Jazari's saqiya machines described in 1206.[118] Al-Jazari also constructed a water-raising saqiya chain pump which was run by hydropower rather than manual labour, though the Chinese were also using hydropower for other chain pumps prior to him. Saqiya machines like the ones he described have been supplying water in Damascus since the 13th century up until modern times,[134] and were in everyday use throughout the medieval Islamic world.[118] Crankshaft-driven screw and screwpump: In ancient times, the screw and screwpump were driven by a treadwheel, but from the 12th and 13th centuries, Muslim engineers operated them using the crankshaft.[135] Double-action piston suction pump with reciprocating motion: In 1206, al-Jazari demonstrates the first suction pipes and suction piston pump, the first use of double-action, and one of the earliest valve operations, when he invented a twin-cylinder double-action reciprocating suction piston pump, which seems to have had a direct significance in the development of modern engineering. This pump is driven by a water wheel, which drives, through a system of gears, an oscillating slot-rod to which the rods of two pistons are attached. The pistons work in horizontally opposed cylinders, each provided with valve-operated suction and delivery pipes. The delivery pipes are joined above the centre of the machine to form a single outlet into the irrigation system. This pump is remarkable for being the earliest known use of a true suction pipe in a pump.[136] Flywheel-driven chain pump and noria: A flywheel is used to smooth out the delivery of power from a driving device to a driven machine. The mechanical flywheel was first invented by Ibn Bassal (fl. 1038-1075) of Islamic Spain, who pioneered the use of the flywheel in the chain pump (saqiya) and noria.[137] Weight-driven pump: Most ancient and medieval pumps were either driven by manual labour or hydraulics. The first weight-driven pump was described as part of a perpetual motion water-raising machine in a medieval Arabic manuscript written some time after Al-Jazari. It featured a mercury-powered clockwork escapement mechanism and had two out gear-wheels driven by lead weights which mesh with a large central gear-wheel.[138] [edit] Medical products See also: Islamic medicine [edit] Drugs and medications Muslim physicians pioneered a number of drugs and medications for use in medicine, including:Avicenna, considered the "father of modern medicine", pioneered clinical pharmacology, and described inhalational anesthetics and various drugs and medications, in The Canon of Medicine (1025). Alcohol as an antiseptic: The application of pure alcohol to wounds as an antiseptic agent, and the use of alcohol as a solvent and antiseptic, was introduced by Muslim physicians and surgeons in the 10th century.[9] Cancer therapy, pharmacotherapy, and Hindiba: Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine (1025) attempted the earliest known treatments for cancer. One method he discovered was the "Hindiba", a herbal compound drug which Ibn al-Baitar later identified as having "anticancer" properties and which could also treat other tumors and neoplastic disorders. Avicenna wrote a separate supplement treatise dedicated to the pharmacotherapy of Hindiba, giving details on the drug's properties and uses, and he then gives instructions on its preparation as medication.[139] After recognizing its usefulness in treating neoplastic disorders, Hindiba was patented in 1997 by Nil Sari, Hanzade Dogan and John K. Snyder.[140] Chemotherapeutic drugs: Pioneered by Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes), who introduced the use of chemical substances such as vitriol, copper, mercuric and arsenic salts, sal ammoniac, gold scoria, chalk, clay, coral, pearl, tar, bitumen and alcohol for medical purposes.[141] Clinical pharmacology, clinical trial, randomized controlled trial, and efficacy test: The origins of clinical pharmacology date back to Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine in 1025.[142] His emphasis on tested medicines laid the foundations for an experimental approach to pharmacology.[143] The Canon laid out the rules and principles for testing the effectiveness of new drugs and medications, which still form the basis of clinical pharmacology[144] and modern clinical trials,[145] randomized controlled trials[146][147] and efficacy tests.[148][149] Cough medicine and syrup: The use of syrups for treating coughs originates from medieval Arabic physicians.[14][150] Drugs, foods, herbs, plants and chemical substances: In antiquity, Dioscorides listed about 500 plants in the 1st century. Muslim botanists, chemists and pharmacists dicovered many more during the Middle Ages. For example, Al-Dinawari described more than 637 plant drugs in the 9th century,[151] and Ibn al-Baitar described at least 1,400 different plants, foods and drugs, 300 of which were his own original discoveries, in the 13th century.[152] In total, at least 2,000 medicinal substances were discovered by Muslim botanists, chemists and pharmacists.[2] Epilepsy and seizure medications: Abulcasis, in his Al-Tasrif (c. 1000), invented medications called Ghawali and Lafayfe for the treatment of epilepsy and seizure.[79] Medicinal-grade alcohol: Produced through distillation. These distillation devices for use in chemistry and medicine were manufactured on a large scale in the 10th century. Parasitology: Parasites were first discovered by Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar), when he discovered the cause of scabies.[153] He recommended specific substances to destroy microbes, and the application of sulfur topically specifically to kill the scabies mite. Pharmacopoeia: The first pharmacopoeia books were written by Muslim physicians.[154] These included Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine and other pharmacopoeia books by Abu-Rayhan Biruni in the early 11th century,[155] Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) in the 12th century (and printed in 1491),[156] and Ibn al-Baitar in the 14th century.[9] Phytotherapy, Taxus baccata, and calcium channel blocker: Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine introduced the medicinal use of Taxus baccata L. He named this herbal drug "Zarnab" and used it as a cardiac remedy. This was the first known use of a calcium channel blocker drug, which were not used in the Western world until the 1960s.[157] Sexual dysfunction and erectile dysfunction drugs: Muslim physicians identified the issue of sexual and erectile dysfunction, and they were the first to prescribe medication for the treatment of the problem. They developed several methods of therapy for this issue, including the single drug method where a drug is prescribed, and a "combination method of either a drug or food." These drugs were also occasionally used for recreational drug use to improve male sexuality in general by those who did not suffer from sexual dysfunctions. Most of these drugs were oral medication, though a few patients were also treated through topical and transurethral means. Sexual dysfunctions were being treated with tested drugs in the Islamic world since the 9th century until the 16th century by a number of Muslim physicians and pharmacists, including al-Razi, Thabit bin Qurra, Ibn Al-Jazzar, Avicenna (The Canon of Medicine), Averroes, Ibn al-Baitar, and Ibn al-Nafis (The Comprehensive Book on Medicine).[158] Topical cream: For the relief and treatment of common colds, Abulcasis invented Muthallaathat, which was prepared from camphor, musk and honey, similar to the modern Vicks Vapour Rub.[79] [edit] Surgical instruments A wide variety of surgical instruments and techniques were invented in the Muslim world, as well as the refinement of earlier instruments and techniques. In particular, over 200 surgical instruments were listed by Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis) in the Al-Tasrif (1000), many of which were never used before by any previous surgeons. Hamidan, for example, listed at least twenty six innovative surgical instruments that Abulcasis introduced. Adhesive bandage and plaster: Introduced by Abulcasis.[159][160] Bone saw: Invented by Abulcasis.[10] Cancer surgery: Another method for treating cancer first described by Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine was a surgical treatment. He stated that the excision should be radical and that all diseased tissue should be removed, which included the use of amputation or the removal of veins running in the direction of the tumor. He also recommended the use of cauterization for the area being treated if necessary.[159] Cataract extraction, hypodermic needle, injection syringe, and suction: In circa 1000, the Muslim ophthalmologist Ammar ibn Ali of Mosul was the first to successfully extract cataracts. He invented a hollow metallic syringe hypodermic needle, which he applied through the sclerotic and successfully extracted the cataracts through suction.[161] Catgut, use of: The use of catgut for internal stitching was introduced by Abulcasis. Cotton dressing and bandage: The earliest known use of cotton (derived from the Arabic word qutn) as a dressing for controlling hemorrhage, was described by Abulcasis.[159] Curette, retractor, sound, surgical spoon, surgical hook, and surgical rod: Invented by Abulcasis in his Al-Tasrif (1000).[162] Fetus extraction: Abulcasis, in his Al-Tasrif (1000), first described the surgical procedure of extractiing a dead fetus using forceps.[163] General anaesthesia, General anaesthetic, oral anesthesia, inhalational anaesthetic, and narcotic-soaked sponge: Surgeries under inhalant anesthesia with the use of narcotic-soaked sponges which were placed over the face, were introduced by the Muslim anesthesiologists, Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis) and Ibn Zuhr, in Islamic Spain. Sigrid Hunke wrote: "The science of medicine has gained a great and extremely important discovery and that is the use of general anaesthetics for surgical operations, and how unique, efficient, and merciful for those who tried it the Muslim anaesthetic was. It was quite different from the drinks the Indians, Romans and Greeks were forcing their patients to have for relief of pain. There had been some allegations to credit this discovery to an Italian or to an Alexandrian, but the truth is and history proves that, the art of using the anaesthetic sponge is a pure Muslim technique, which was not known before. The sponge used to be dipped and left in a mixture prepared from cannabis, opium, hyoscyamus and a plant called Zoan."[164] Illustrated surgical atlas: Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu's Cerrahiyyetu'l-Haniyye (Imperial Surgery), produced in the 15th century, was the first surgical wiktionary:atlas|atlas. Surgical operations were illustrated for the first time in the Cerrahiyyetu'l-Haniyye.[165] Ligature: Introduced by Abulcasis in the Al-Tasrif, for the blood control of arteries in lieu of cauterization.[166] Surgical suture: Abulcasis in his Al-Tasrif.[167] Tracheotomy, correct description of: While tracheostomy may have possibly been portrayed on ancient Egyptian tablets, the first clear and correct description of the tracheotomy operation for suffocating patients was described by Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) in the 12th century.[167][168] [edit] Navigational technology See also: Geography in medieval Islam, Astronomy in medieval Islam, and Physics in medieval Islam The 32-point compass rose was invented by Arab navigators. Shown here is the one by Jorge de Aguiar (1492). [edit] Instruments Baculus: The baculus, used for nautical astronomy, originates from Islamic Spain and was later used by Portuguese navigators for long-distance travel.[169] Cartographic grids: Invented in 10th-century Baghdad.[170] Compass dial: In the early 14th century, Ibn al-Shatir invented the compass dial, a timekeeping device incorporating both a universal sundial and a magnetic compass. He invented it for the purpose of finding the times of Salah prayers.[171] Compass rose: The Arabs invented the 32-point compass rose during the Middle Ages.[172] Navigational astrolabe: Invented in the Islamic world, it employed the use of a polar projection system.[173] Orthographical astrolabe: Invented by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī in the early 11th century.[174] Terrestrial globe: See Globes below. [edit] Transport Kamal: Arab navigators invented a rudimentary sextant known as a kamal, used for celestial navigation and for measuring the altitudes and latitudes of the stars, in the late 9th century.[175] They employed in the Indian Ocean from the 10th century,[176] They employed it in the Indian Ocean from the 10th century,[176] and it was adopted by Indian navigators soon after,[177] followed by Chinese navigators some time before the 16th century.[178] The invention of the kamal allowed for the earliest known latitude sailing,[176] and was thus the earliest step towards the use of quantitative methods in navigation.[178] Rudder with tackles, permanent sternpost-mounted: The Arabs used a sternpost-mounted rudder which differed technically from both its European and Chinese counterparts. On their ships "the rudder is controlled by two lines, each attached to a crosspiece mounted on the rudder head perpendicular to the plane of the rudder blade."[179] The earliest evidence comes from the Ahsan al-Taqasim fi Marifat al-Aqalim ('The Best Divisions for the Classification of Regions') written by al-Muqaddasi in 985.[180] According to Lawrence V. Mott, the "idea of attaching the rudder to the sternpost in a relatively permanent fashion, therefore, must have been an Arab invention independent of the Chinese."[179] Minaret of the Great Mosque at Córdoba, where Abbas Ibn Firnas flew from in the 9th century. [edit] Aviation Parachute: In 9th century Islamic Spain, Abbas Ibn Firnas (Armen Firnas) invented a primitive version of the parachute.[181][182][183][184] John H. Lienhard described it in The Engines of Our Ingenuity as follows: "In 852, a new Caliph and a bizarre experiment: A daredevil named Armen Firman decided to fly off a tower in Cordova. He glided back to earth, using a huge winglike cloak to break his fall."[185] [edit] Scientific instruments See also: Islamic astronomy, Islamic physics, and Alchemy and chemistry in Islam Muslim astronomers developed a number of astronomical instruments, including several variations of the astrolabe, originally invented by Hipparchus in the 2nd century BCE, but with considerable improvements made to the device in the Muslim world. These instruments were used by Muslims for a variety of purposes. In the 10th century, Al-Sufi first described over 1,000 different uses of an astrolabe, related to astronomy, astrology, horoscopes, navigation, surveying, timekeeping, Qibla (direction to Mecca), Salah prayers, etc.[186] [edit] Analog computers The universal latitude-independent astrolabe was invented by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Arzachel) in Islamic Spain circa 1015. The one shown here is from Persia in the 18th century. The spherical astrolabe was invented by Muslim astronomers. This is the earliest surviving example from the 14th century. Equatorium: Invented by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Arzachel) in Islamic Spain circa 1015,[17] it was a mechanical analog computer device for finding the longitudes and positions of the moon, sun, and planet]s, without calculation using a geometrical model to represent the celestial body's mean and anomalistic position. Saphaea: The first universal latitude-independent astrolabe, invented by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Arzachel) in 11th century Islamic Spain. Unlike its predecessors, it did not depend on the latitude of the observer, and could be used anywhere on the Earth.[187] Zuraqi: A heliocentric astrolabe where the Earth is in motion rather than the sky, by al-Sijzi in the 11th century.[188] Fixed-wired knowledge processing machine: Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī's hodometer[189] was an early example of a fixed-wired knowledge processing machine in the early 11th century.[190] Mechanical lunisolar calendar computer: Featured a gear train and gear-wheels, and was invented by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī.[191] Mechanical geared astrolabe: Invented by Ibn Samh (c. 1020).[192] Linear astrolabe ("staff of al-Tusi"): Invented by Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī in the 12th century.[193] Programmable analog computer: The castle clock, an astronomical clock invented by Al-Jazari in 1206, is considered to be the earliest programmable analog computer.[111] It displayed the zodiac, the solar and lunar orbits, a crescent moon-shaped pointer travelling across a gateway causing automatic doors to open every hour,[70][194] and five robotic musicians who play music when moved by levers operated by a camshaft attached to a water wheel. The length of day and night could be re-programmed every day in order to account for the changing lengths of day and night throughout the year.[111] Mechanical geared astrolabe with calendar computer: Invented by Abi Bakr of Isfahan in 1235.[195] Plate of Conjunctions: A computing instrument used to determine the time of day at which planetary conjunctions will occur,[196] and for performing linear interpolation,[197] invented by al-Kashi in the 15th century. Planetary computer: The Plate of Zones, a mechanical planetary computer which could graphically solve a number of planetary problems, was invented by al-Kashi in the 15th century. It could predict the true positions in longitude of the sun and moon,[197] and the planets in terms of elliptical orbits;[198] the latitudes of the Sun, Moon, and planets; and the ecliptic of the Sun. The instrument also incorporated an alidade and ruler.[199] [edit] Laboratory apparatus Geber invented the alembic, the first still with a retort, and the first distillation device to fully purify chemical substances. Alembic, still, and retort: Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) invented the alembic in the 8th century. This was the first still[3] with a retort,[200] and the first distillation device to fully purify chemical substances. Conical measure: Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī in the 11th century.[201][202] Hydrostatic balance and steelyard: Al-Khazini in 1121.[203] Laboratory flask and pycnometer: Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī.[203] Refrigerated coil and refrigerated tubing: In the 11th century, Avicenna invented the refrigerated coil, which condenses aromatic vapours.[204][205] This was a breakthrough in distillation technology and he made use of it in his steam distillation process, which requires refrigerated tubing, to produce essential oils.[11] Thermometer and air thermometer: Abū Alī ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) in the 11th century.[206] Tools for drug preparation: Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) first described the following tools for the preparation of drugs (li-tadbir al-aqaqir): cucurbit and still with evacuation tube (qar aq anbiq dhu-khatm), receiving matras (qabila), blind still (without evacuation tube) (al-anbiq al-ama), aludel (al-uthal), goblets (qadah), flasks (qarura or quwarir), rosewater flasks (ma wariyya), cauldron (marjal aw tanjir), earthenware pots varnished on the inside with their lids (qudur aq tanjir), water bath or sand bath (qadr), oven (al-tannur in Arabic, athanor in Latin), small cylindirical oven for heating aludel (mustawqid), funnels, sieves, and filters.[6] Tools for melting substances: Al-Razi (Rhazes), in his Secretum secretorum (Latinized title), described the following original tools for melting chemical substances (li-tadhwib): crucible (bawtaqa)[6] and kilns with superimposed crucibles known as but bar but (crucible on crucible) in Arabic and botus barbatus in Latin.[207] [edit] Mural instruments The first sextant was built in Ray, Iran by Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi in 994. The earliest surviving sextant is Ulugh Beg's mural "Fakhri Sextant" constructed in Samarkand, Uzbekistan, during the 15th century, pictured above. Quadrant and mural instrument: Invented by Al-Khwarizmi in 9th century Baghdad, Iraq.[208] Almucantar quadrant: Invented in the medieval Islamic world. It employed the use of trigonometry. The term "almucantar" is itself derived from Arabic.[209] Horary quadrant: For specific latitude]s, by al-Khwarizmi in 9th century Baghdad.[208] Sine quadrant: For astronomical calculations, by al-Khwarizmi in 9th century Baghdad.[208] Quadrans Vetus: Meaning "Old Quadrant", this was a universal horary quadrant which could be used for any latitude and at any time of the year to determine the time, as well as the times of Salah, invented by al-Khwarizmi in 9th century Baghdad. This was the second most widely used astronomical instrument during the Middle Ages after the astrolabe. One of its main purposes in the Islamic world was to determine the times of Salah prayers.[210] Quadrans Novus: An astrolabic quadrant invented in Egypt in the 11th century or 12th century, and later known in Europe as the "Quadrans Novus" (New Quadrant).[211] Sextant: The first sextant was constructed in Ray, Iran, by Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi in 994. It was a very large sextant that achieved a high level of accuracy for astronomical measurements, which he described his in his treatise, On the obliquity of the ecliptic and the latitudes of the cities.[212] In the 15th century, Ulugh Beg constructed the mural "Fakhri Sextant", which had a radius of approximately 36 meters. Constructed in Samarkand, Uzbekistan, the arc was finely constructed with a staircase on either side to provide access for the assistants who performed the measurements. [edit] Optical instruments In ancient times, Euclid and Ptolemy believed that the eyes emitted rays which enabled us to see. The first person to realise that rays of light enters the eye, rather than leaving it, was the 10th century Muslim mathematician, astronomer and physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), who is regarded as the "father of optics".[213] He is also credited with being the first man to shift physics from a philosophical activity to an experimental one, with his development of the scientific method. Observation tube: The "observation tube" (without lens) was invented by al-Battani (Albatenius) (853-929) and first described by al-Biruni (973-1048). These observation tubes were later adopted in Europe, where they influenced the development of the telescope.[214] Modern optics: Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), with his Book of Optics (1021), refuted the emission theory of vision, and correctly explained and proved the modern intromission theory of vision, through extensive experimentation. He thus initiated a revolution in optics[215] and visual perception,[216] for which he is regarded as the "father of modern optics".[217] Camera obscura: Ibn al-Haytham worked out that the smaller the hole, the better the picture, and set up the first camera obscura,[10] a precursor to the modern camera. Pinhole camera: Ibn al-Haytham first described pinhole camera after noticing the way light came through a hole in window shutters.[10] Magnifying glass: The earliest evidence of "a magnifying device, a convex lens forming a magnified image", dates back the Book of Optics published by Ibn al-Haytham in 1021. The Latin translation of his work was instrumental to the later inventions of eyeglasses,[218] the telescope,[219] and the microscope.[220] [edit] Other instruments An alidade (al-idhâdah "ruler" in Arabic). Alidade: Invented in the Islamic world. The term "alidade" is itself derived from Arabic word al-idhâdah "ruler". Astrolabic clock: Ibn al-Shatir in the early 14th century.[221] Astrometric devices: Produced in Islamic Spain around 1015. Astronomical compass: The first astronomical uses of the magnetic compass is found in a treatise on astronomical instruments written by the Yemeni sultan al-Ashraf in 1282. This was the first reference to the compass in astronomical literature.[222] Compendium instrument: A multi-purpose astronomical instrument, first constructed by the Muslim astronomer Ibn al-Shatir in the 13th century. His compendium featured an alidade and polar sundial among other things. Al-Wafa'i developed another compendium in the 15th century which he called the "equatorial circle", which also featured a horizontal sundial. These compendia later became popular in Renaissance Europe.[223] Shadow square: An instrument used to determine the linear height of an object, in conjunction with the alidade for angular observations, invented by Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī in 9th-century Baghdad.[224] [edit] Timekeeping devices A sundial in Seville, Andalusia. The first universal and polar-axis sundials were invented by Muslim engineers. The elephant clock from Al-Jazari's manuscript in 1206. This was the earliest clock to employ a flow regulator, a closed-loop system, and an automaton like a cuckoo clock]. [edit] Astronomical clocks Muslim astronomers and engineers constructed a variety of highly accurate astronomical clocks for use in their observatories. [9] Timekeeping astrolabe: In the 10th century, al-Sufi described over 1,000 different uses of an astrolabe, including timekeeping, particularly for the times of Salah prayers and Ramadan.[186] Geared mechanical lunisolar calendar computer: See Analog computers above. Geared mechanical astrolabe: Featured a calendar computer and gear-wheels, and was invented by Abi Bakr of Isfahan in 1235.[195] Monumental water-powered astronomical clocks: Al-Jazari invented monumental water powered astronomical clocks which displayed moving models of the sun, moon, and stars. His largest astronomical clock displayed the zodiac and the solar and lunar orbits. Another innovative feature of the clock was a pointer which travelled across the top of a gateway and caused automatic doors to open every hour.[70] Programmable castle clock: See Analog computers above. Quadrans Vetus: See Mural instruments above. [edit] Clocks with gears and escapements Geared clock: The first geared clock was invented by the 11th-century Arab engineer Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi in Islamic Iberia; it was a water clock that employed both segmental and epicyclic gearing.[17] Other monumental water clocks constructed by medieval Muslim engineers also employed complex gear trains and arrays of automata.[225] The first European clock to employ these complex gears was the astronomical clock created by Giovanni de Dondi in c. 1365.[17] Weight-driven mercury clock: A mercury clock, employing a mercury escapement mechanism[225] and a clock face similar to an astrolabe dial, was described in a Spanish language work for Alfonso X in 1277, compiled from earlier Arabic sources that likely date back to the 11th century.[17] The Jewish author of the relevant section, Rabbi Isaac, constructed the mercury clock using principles described by a philosopher named "Iran", identified with Heron of Alexandria (fl. 1st century AD), on how heavy objects may be lifted.[226] Knowledge of the mercury clock was later transmitted to other parts of Europe through translations.[9][17] Weight-driven water clock: Arab engineers invented weight-driven water clocks, where heavy floats were used as weights and a constant-head system was used as an escapement mechanism,[17] which was present in in the hydraulic controls they used to make heavy floats descend at a slow and steady rate.[225] Weight-driven water-powered scribe clock: In 1206, Al-Jazari invented some of the earliest weight-driven water clocks, including the water-powered scribe clock. This water-powered portable clock was a meter high and half a meter wide. The scribe with his pen was synonymous to the hour hand of a modern clock. This is an example of an ingenious water system by Al-Jazari.[51][227] Al-Jazari's famous water-powered scribe clock was reconstructed successfully at the Science Museum (London) in 1976. [edit] Dials Universal sundial: A universal sundial for all latitudes, used for timekeeping and for the determination of the times of Salah, was produced in 9th-century Baghdad.[228] Navicula de Venetiis: A universal horary dial used for accurate timekeeping by the sun and stars, and could be observed from any latitude, invented in 9th century Baghdad.[229] This was later considered the most sophisticated timekeeping instrument of the Renaissance.[170] Polar-axis sundial: The ancient sundials were nodus-based with straight hour-lines, they indicated unequal hours-also called temporary hours-that varied with the seasons, since every day was divided into twelve equal segments; thus, hours were shorter in winter and longer in summer. The idea of using hours of equal time length throughout the year was the innovation of Ibn al-Shatir in 1371, based on earlier developments in trigonometry by Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī (Albategni). Ibn al-Shatir was aware that "using a gnomon that is parallel to the Earth's axis will produce sundials whose hour lines indicate equal hours on any day of the year." His sundial is the oldest polar-axis sundial still in existence. The concept later appeared in Western sundials from at least 1446.[230][231] Compass dial: See Instruments above. [edit] Water clocks Geared water clock: See Clocks with gears and escapements above. Elephant clock: The elephant clock described by al-Jazari in 1206 is notable for several innovations. It was the first clock in which an automaton reacted after certain intervals of time, which in this case was a humanoid robot in the form of a mahout striking a cymbal and a mechanical bird chirping like a cuckoo clock; the first mechanism to employ a flow regulator; and the earliest example of a closed-loop system in a mechanism.[232] The float regulator employed in the clock later had an important influence during the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century, when it was employed in the boiler of a steam engine and in domestic water systems.[17] Programmable castle clock: See Analog computers above. Weight-driven water clock: See Clocks with gears and escapements above. Weight-driven water-powered scribe clock: See Clocks with gears and escapements above. New water clocks discovery in the Book of secrets is shown in the Museum of Islamic Art; Doha, Qatar. References here: The Book of Secrets [edit] Other inventions Al-Kindi's 9th century Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages was the first book on cryptanalysis and frequency analysis. Geomantic instrument, Egypt or Syria, 1241-1242 CE, made by Muhammad ibn Khutlukh al Mawsuli. British Museum. The lute was adopted from the Arab world. 1568 print. The Arabic four-stringed oud was the ancestor of the lute and guitar. The Arabic rebab was the ancestor of the rebec and the violin. Fielding H. Garrison wrote in the History of Medicine:"The Saracens themselves were the originators not only of algebra, chemistry, and geology, but of many of the so-called improvements or refinements of civilization, such as street lamps, window-panes, firework, string instruments, cultivated fruits, perfumes, spices, etc."[233] Other inventions from the Islamic world include: Airmail system utilizing homing pigeons by the Fatimid Caliph Aziz, and advances in music theory (see Arabic music) and irrigation techniques (see Muslim Agricultural Revolution).[234][235][236] Cryptanalysis and frequency analysis: In cryptology, the first known recorded explanation of cryptanalysis was given by 9th-century Arabian polymath, Al-Kindi (also known as "Alkindus" in Europe), in A Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages. This treatise includes the first description of the method of frequency analysis.[237] It has been suggested that close textual study of the Qur'an first brought to light that Arabic has a characteristic letter frequency. Its use spread, and similar systems were widely used in European states by the time of the Renaissance. Experimental psychology: Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) is considered to be the founder of experimental psychology,[238] for his experimental approach to the psychology of visual perception and optical illusions.[239] Geomancy: The most widely accepted origin for this practice is in the medieval Arabic world.[240] Fireproof paper, glow-in-the-dark ink, rust-free iron, and waterproof textile: According to Ismail al-Faruqi and Lois Lamya al-Faruqi, "In response to Jafar al-Sadik's wishes, [Jabir ibn Hayyan] invented a kind of paper that resisted fire, and an ink that could be read at night. He invented an additive which, when applied to an iron surface, inhibited rust and when applied to a textile, would make it water repellent."[241] Fustian: The original medieval fustian was a stout but respectable cloth with a cotton weft and a linen warp, derived from El-Fustat, the name of a suburb of Cairo where this cloth was originally manufactured.[242][243] Graph paper, and orthogonal and regular grids: The first known use of graph paper dates back to the medieval Islamic world, where weavers often carefully drew and encoded their patterns onto graph paper prior to weaving.[244] Islamic quadrants used for various astronomical and timekeeping purposes from the 10th century also introduced markings with orthogonal and regular grids that are still identical to modern graph paper.[245][246] Persian carpet and cheque system[10] Scientific method, experimental science, and experimental physics: The scientific method was pioneered by the Muslim scientist and physicist, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), who emphasized the role of experimentation and mathematics in obtaining the results in his Book of Optics (1021).[247] Due to his formulation of a modern quantitative, empirical and experimental approach to physics and science, he is also considered the pioneer of experimental science[248] and experimental physics,[249] and some have described him as the "first scientist" for these reasons.[250] [edit] Musical instruments See also: Arabic music, Islamic music, and Andalusian classical music Albogue, alboka, hornpipe, clarinet, and single-reed instrument: The earliest known hornpipes, clarinets and single-reed instruments were the albogue and alboka, both derived from the "al-bûq" (البوق) (literally "the trumpet" or "the horn") used in medieval Arabic music and Islamic music. The instrument was brought into Iberia by the Arab conquest.[251] Guitar, lute, and oud: The modern guitar (qitar in Arabic) is descended from the four-string oud brought by the Moors after the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in the 8th century, and which evolved into the modern lute.[252] The four-string guitar introduced by the Moors had eventually evolved into two types in Spain: the guitarra morisca (Moorish guitar) which had a rounded back, wide fingerboard and several soundholes, and then by 1200, the guitarra latina (Latin guitar) which resembled the modern guitar with one soundhole and a narrower neck.[253] Herdy Gerdy and stringed keyboard instrument: The earliest stringed instrument with a musical keyboard, an ancestor of the piano, was the hurdy gurdy, but its origins are uncertain. According to a theory proposed by Marianne Bröcker, an instrument similar to the hurdy gurdy is first mentioned in an Arabic musical compendium written by Al Zirikli in the 10th century.[254] Long-distance organ: A long-distance hydraulic organ that could be heard from sixty miles away was first described in the medieval Arabic treatise Sirr al-asrar and later translated into Latin by Roger Bacon in the 13th century.[255] Mechanical musical instrument and automatic hydraulic organ: The Banū Mūsā brothers invented "the earliest known mechanical musical instrument", in this case a hydropowered organ which played interchangeable cylinders automatically. According to Charles B. Fowler, this "cylinder with raised pins on the surface remained the basic device to produce and reproduce music mechanically until the second half of the nineteenth century."[256] Programmable automatic flute player: The Banū Mūsā invented an automatic flute player which appears to have been the first programmable machine, and which they described in their Book of Ingenious Devices.[130] Timpani, naker, and naqareh: The modern timpani (kettle drum) evolved from the naker, the direct ancestor of most timpani, were were derived from the Arabic naqareh and brought to 13th century Continental Europe by Saracens and Crusaders.[251][257] Rebec, and rebab: The rebec was in use since the 10th century,[258] and was derived from the rebab which originated in medieval Arabic music and Islamic music.[251] [edit] See also Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe Islamic Golden Age Muslim Agricultural Revolution Science in medieval Islam Timeline of Islamic science and engineering Timeline of historic inventions [edit] Notes ^ Bernard Lewis, What Went Wrong: "There have been many civilizations in human history, almost all of which were local, in the sense that they were defined by a region and an ethnic group. This applied to all the ancient civilizations of the Middle East-Ancient Egypt, Babylon, Persia; to the great civilizations of Asia-India, China; and to the civilizations of Pre-Columbian America. There are two exceptions: Christendom and Islam. These are two civilizations defined by religion, in which religion is the primary defining force, not, as in India or China, a secondary aspect among others of an essentially regional and ethnically defined civilization. Here, again, another word of explanation is necessary." ^ a b c d S. Hadzovic (1997). "Pharmacy and the great contribution of Arab-Islamic science to its development", Med Arh. 51 (1-2), p. 47-50. ^ a b Will Durant (1980). The Age of Faith (The Story of Civilization, Volume 4), p. 162-186. Simon & Schuster. http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Special:Booksources&isbn=0671012002. ^ a b c d Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p. 195. ^ Diane Boulanger (2002), "The Islamic Contribution to Science, Mathematics and Technology: Towards Motivating the Muslim Child", OISE Papers in STSE Education, Vol. 3. ^ a b c d Georges C. Anawati, "Arabic alchemy", p. 868, in (Rashed & Morelon 1996, pp. 853-902) ^ a b c d e f g h Hassan, Ahmad Y. "Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part III: Technology Transfer in the Chemical Industries". History of Science and Technology in Islam. http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2072.htm. Retrieved on 2008-03-29. ^ a b c d Derewenda, Zygmunt S. (2007), "On wine, chirality and crystallography", Acta Crystallographica Section A: Foundations of Crystallography 64: 246-258 [247] ^ a b c d e f g Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992). Miracle of Islamic Science, Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers. http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Special:Booksources&isbn=0911119434. ^ a b c d e f g Paul Vallely, How Islamic Inventors Changed the World, The Independent, 11 March 2006. ^ a b c Marlene Ericksen (2000). Healing with Aromatherapy, p. 9. McGraw-Hill Professional. http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Special:Booksources&isbn=0658003828. ^ Ahmad Y Hassan, The Colouring of Gemstones, The Purifying and Making of Pearls, And Other Useful Recipes ^ Hassan, Ahmad Y. "Arabic Alchemy: Science of the Art". History of Science and Technology in Islam. http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2010.htm. Retrieved on 2008-03-29. ^ a b c d e George Rafael, A is for Arabs, Salon.com, January 8, 2002. ^ a b c Sarton, George, Introduction to the History of Science (cf. Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), Quotations From Famous Historians of Science) ^ Olga Pikovskaya, Repaying the West's Debt to Islam, BusinessWeek, March 29, 2005 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Ahmad Y Hassan, Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering, History of Science and Technology in Islam ^ Khairallah, Amin A. (1946), Outline of Arabic Contributions to Medicine, chapter 10, Beirut ^ Mokyr, Joel (2002), Twenty-Five Centuries of Technological Change, p. 25, http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Special:Booksources&isbn=0415269318 ^ Hassan, Ahmad Y. "Alcohol and the Distillation of Wine in Arabic Sources". History of Science and Technology in Islam. http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%207.htm. Retrieved on 2008-03-29. ^ Ahmad Y Hassan, Alcohol and the Distillation of Wine in Arabic Sources, History of Science and Technology in Islam ^ Lindsay, James E. (2005), Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 131, http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Special:Booksources&isbn=0313322708 ^ a b Salma Khadra Jayyusi and Manuela Marin (1994), The Legacy of Muslim Spain, p. 117, Brill Publishers, http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Special:Booksources&isbn=9004095993 ^ a b Ahmad Y Hassan, Assessment of Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuna, History of Science and Technology in Islam. ^ a b Hassan, Ahmad Y. "The Manufacture of Coloured Glass". History of Science and Technology in Islam. http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%209.htm. Retrieved on 2007-09-03. ^ a b Hassan, Ahmad Y. "The Colouring of Gemstones, The Purifying and Making of Pearls And Other Useful Recipes". History of Science and Technology in Islam. http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2092.htm. Retrieved on 2008-03-29. ^ R. S. Elliott (1966). Electromagnetics, Chapter 1. McGraw-Hill. ^ a b Dr. Nader El-Bizri, "Ibn al-Haytham or Alhazen", in Josef W. Meri (2006), Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopaedia, Vol. II, p. 343-345, Routledge, New York, London. ^ a b Henderson, J.; McLoughlin, S. D.; McPhail, D. S. (2004), "Radical changes in Islamic glass technology: evidence for conservatism and experimentation with new glass recipes from early and middle Islamic Raqqa, Syria", Archaeometry 46 (3): 439-68 ^ a b Lynn Townsend White, Jr. (Spring, 1961). 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(2003), The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives, MIT Press, pp. 85-118, http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Special:Booksources&isbn=0262194821 ^ Hatfield, Gary (1996), "Was the Scientific Revolution Really a Revolution in Science?", in Ragep, F. J.; Ragep, Sally P.; Livesey, Steven John, Tradition, Transmission, Transformation: Proceedings of Two Conferences on Pre-modern Science held at the University of Oklahoma, Brill Publishers, p. 500, http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Special:Booksources&isbn=9004091262 ^ R. L. Verma (1969), Al-Hazen: father of modern optics ^ Kriss, Timothy C.; Kriss, Vesna Martich (April 1998), "History of the Operating Microscope: From Magnifying Glass to Microneurosurgery", Neurosurgery 42 (4): 899-907 ^ O. S. Marshall (1950). "Alhazen and the Telescope", Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets 6, p. 4 ^ Richard Powers (University of Illinois), Best Idea; Eyes Wide OpenNew York Times, April 18, 1999. ^ David A. King (1983). "The Astronomy of the Mamluks", Isis 74 (4), p. 531-555 [545-546]. ^ Emilie Savage-Smith (1988), "Gleanings from an Arabist's Workshop: Current Trends in the Study of Medieval Islamic Science and Medicine", Isis 79 (2): 246-266 [263]. ^ King, David A., "Astronomy and Islamic society", pp. 163-8 , in (Rashed & Morelon 1996, pp. 128-184) ^ David A. King (2002). "A Vetustissimus Arabic Text on the Quadrans Vetus", Journal for the History of Astronomy 33, p. 237-255 [238-239]. ^ a b c Donald Routledge Hill (1996), "Engineering", p. 794, in (Rashed & Morelon 1996, p. 751-95) ^ Mills, A. A. (1988), "The mercury clock of the Libros del Saber", Annals of Science 45 (4): 329-344 [332] ^ Ibn al-Razzaz Al-Jazari (ed. 1974) The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, Translated and annotated by Donald Routledge Hill, Dordrecht / D. Reidel, part II. ^ David A. King, "Islamic Astronomy", p. 168-169. ^ David A. King (December 2003). "14th-Century England or 9th-Century Baghdad? New Insights on the Elusive Astronomical Instrument Called Navicula de Venetiis", Centaurus 45 (1-4), p. 204-226. ^ "History of the sundial". National Maritime Museum. http://www.nmm.ac.UK/server/show/conWebDoc.353. Retrieved on 2008-07-02. ^ Jones, Lawrence (December 2005), "The Sundial And Geometry", North American Sundial Society 12 (4) ^ The Machines of Al-Jazari and Taqi Al-Din, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization. ^ Fielding H. Garrison, History of Medicine ^ Professor Salim T. S. Al-Hassani (2006). 1001 Inventions: Muslim Heritage in Our World. FSTC. http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Special:Booksources&isbn=0955242606. ^ Where the heart is, 1001 Inventions: Muslim Heritage in Our World, 2006. ^ Laura Shannon (2006). 1001 Inventions At Museum Of Science And Industry Manchester. ^ Ibrahim A. Al-Kadi (April 1992), "The origins of cryptology: The Arab contributions", Cryptologia 16 (2): 97-126 ^ (Khaleefa 1999) ^ (Steffens 2006), Chapter 5 ^ Skinner, Stephen (1980). Terrestrial Astrology: Divination by Geomancy. London: Routeledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. pp.14-5 ^ Ismail al-Faruqi and Lois Lamya al-Faruqi (1986), The Cultural Atlas of Islam, p. 328, New York ^ "fustian". Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 2nd ed. 1989. ^ Donald King in: Jonathan Alexander & Paul Binski (eds), Age of Chivalry, Art in Plantagenet England, 1200-1400, p.157, Royal Academy/Weidenfeld & Nicholson, London 1987 ^ David J Roxburgh (2000), Muqarnas: An Annual on the Visual Culture of the Islamic World, p. 21, Brill Publishers, http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Special:Booksources&isbn=9004116699. ^ Josef W. Meri (2006), Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, p. 75, Taylor and Francis, http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Special:Booksources&isbn=0415966914. ^ David A. King (1999), World-maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca: Innovation and Tradition in Islamic Science, p. 17, Brill Publishers, http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Special:Booksources&isbn=9004113673. ^ Rosanna Gorini (2003), "Al-Haytham the Man of Experience, First Steps in the Science of Vision", International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Psychobiology and Psychopharmacology, Rome, Italy: "According to the majority of the historians Ibn al-Haytham was the pioneer of the modern scientific method. With his book he changed the meaning of the term optics and established experiments as the norm of proof in the field. His investigations are based not on abstract theories, but on experimental evidences and his experiments were systematic and repeatable." ^ (Omar 1977) ^ Rüdiger Thiele (2005), "In Memoriam: Matthias Schramm", Arabic Sciences and Philosophy 15: 329-31, Cambridge University Press ^ (Steffens 2006) ^ a b c Farmer, Henry George (1988), Historical facts for the Arabian Musical Influence, Ayer Publishing, 137, http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Special:Booksources&isbn=040508496X ^ Summerfield, Maurice J. (2003). The Classical Guitar, It's Evolution, Players and Personalities since 1800 (5th ed.) Blaydon on Tyne: Ashley Mark Publishing. http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Special:Booksources&isbn=1872639461. ^ [A Look At The History Of The Guitar http://www.thejazzfestival.net/showarticle?id=109580] ^ Baines, Anthony (May 1976), "Reviewed work(s): Die Drehleier, ihr Bau und ihre Geschichte by Marianne Bröcker", The Galpin Society Journal 29: 140-141 [140] ^ Sarton, George (1932), "Reviewed work(s): The Organ of the Ancients by Henry George Farmer", Isis 17 (1): 278-282 [281] ^ Fowler, Charles B. (October 1967), "The Museum of Music: A History of Mechanical Instruments", Music Educators Journal 54 (2): 45-49 ^ Bridge, Robert. "Timpani Construction paper" (PDF). http://myhome.sunyocc.edu/~bridger/morepages/subpages/timpconstpaper.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-02-18. ^ Arkenberg, Rebecca (October 2002). "Renaissance Violins". http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/renv/hd_renv.htm. Retrieved on 2006-09-22. [edit] References Gaudiosi, Monica M. (April 1988), "The Influence of the Islamic Law of Waqf on the Development of the Trust in England: The Case of Merton College", University of Pennsylvania Law Review 136 (4): 1231-1261 Hudson, A. (2003), Equity and Trusts (3rd ed.), Cavendish Publishing, http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Special:Booksources&isbn=1859417299 Kennedy, Edward S. (1962), "Review: The Observatory in Islam and Its Place in the General History of the Observatory by Aydin Sayili", Isis 53 (2): 237-239 Khaleefa, Omar (1999), "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 16 (2) McGrail, Sean (2004), Boats of the World, Oxford University Press, http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Special:Booksources&isbn=0199271860 Mott, Lawrence V. (May 1991), The Development of the Rudder, A.D. 100-1337: A Technological Tale, Thesis, Texas A&M University Omar, Saleh Beshara (1977), Ibn al-Haytham's Optics: A Study of the Origins of Experimental Science, Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Special:Booksources&isbn=0882970151 Rashed, Roshdi & Régis Morelon (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Routledge, http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Special:Booksources&isbn=0415124107 Steffens, Bradley (2006), Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Morgan Reynolds Publishing, http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Special:Booksources&isbn=1599350246 Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inventions_of_the_Islamic_Golden_Age" Views Article Discussion Edit this page History Personal tools Log in / create account Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Search Interaction About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact Wikipedia Donate to Wikipedia Help Toolbox What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Printable version Permanent link Cite this page Languages العربية فارسی Bahasa Melayu اردو 中文 This page was last modified on 4 July 2009 at 00:46. 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Marco polo... no its not just a game... this is a real answer

Marco Polo with his father and uncle. Took 4 years.

Marco Polo at 17 with his father a Venice merchant.

Overland with horses and walking. It took months. He left at 17 with his father a Venice merchant to China and was gone 25 years before he returned to Venice.

A merchant is a person who buys and sells large quantities of goods. An Italian merchant is a merchant from Italy.

In that time (1492 until 1600) they believed that is was difficult to sail so they traveled to Asia overland.

The people of the Italian Renaissance traveled mostly by foot, but they also traveled by horse and in carts

Commerciante in Italian means "merchant" in English.

Francisco Pizarro sailed to Panama and subsequently traveled overland to Peru.

Leonardo Pisano Bigollo, also known as Fibonacci, was born in 1170 in Pisa, Italy. His father was a merchant and traveled throughout North Africa, and Fibonacci traveled with him. Fibonacci traveled throughout the Mediterranean his entire life.

yes, he was a Italian merchant, he was quite rich too

Hai viaggiato in America? is an Italian equivalent of the English phrase "Have you traveled to America?" Specifically, the auxiliary hai and the past participle viaggiato mean "(informal singular you) have traveled". The preposition in means "in, into, to". The feminine noun America translates the same in English and Italian. The pronunciation will be "EYE vyad-DJA-to EE-na-MEY-ree-KA" in Italian.

these guilds were for the people who bought and sold goods on large scale, and who finaced ship and overland caravens to trade in distant land

Marco Polo did not have a ship. He traveled overland from Constantinople to China. Part of his return trip was by ship, but he was just a passenger.

Their caravans traveled overland from Baghdad to China. Their ship crossed the Indian Ocean to India and southeast Asia.

Petrarch, also known as the father of Italian Renaissance humanism.

It is Marco Polo who went to China with his merchant father at 17. The father had trading business with China and took his son who became a big hit in China. He stayed 25 years before he returned to Venice, Italy.

Warships traveled with Merchant ships for protection.