The genetic code consists of 64 triplets of nucleotides. These triplets are called codons.With three exceptions, each codon encodes for one of the 20 amino acids used in the synthesis of proteins. That produces some redundancy in the code: most of the amino acids being encoded by more than one codon. One codon, AUG serves two related functions: * it signals the start of translation * it codes for the incorporation of the amino acid methionine (Met) into the growing polypeptide chain The genetic code can be expressed as either RNA codons or DNA codons. RNA codons occur in messenger RNA (mRNA) and are the codons that are actually "read" during the synthesis of polypeptides (the process called translation). But each mRNA molecule acquires its sequence of nucleotides by transcription from the corresponding gene. Because DNA sequencing has become so rapid and because most genes are now being discovered at the level of DNA before they are discovered as mRNA or as a protein product, it is extremely useful to have a table of codons expressed as DNA. So here are both. Note that for each table, the left-hand column gives the first nucleotide of the codon, the 4 middle columns give the second nucleotide, and the last column gives the third nucleotide. {| |+ Second nucleotide |- ! ! U ! C ! A ! G ! rowspan="4" | U | UUU Phenylalanine (Phe) UCU Serine (Ser) UAU Tyrosine (Tyr) UGU Cysteine (Cys) ! U | UUC Phe UCC Ser UAC Tyr UGC Cys ! C | UUA Leucine (Leu) UCA Ser UAA STOP UGA STOP ! A | UUG Leu UCG Ser UAG STOPUGG Tryptophan (Trp) ! G ! rowspan="4" | C | CUU Leucine (Leu) CCU Proline (Pro) CAU Histidine(His) CGU Arginine (Arg) ! U | CUC Leu CCC Pro CAC His CGC Arg ! C | CUA Leu CCA Pro CAA Glutamine (Gln) CGA Arg ! A | CUG Leu CCG Pro CAG Gln CGG Arg ! G ! rowspan="4" | A | AUU Isoleucine (Ile) ACU Threonine (Thr) AAU Asparagine (Asn) AGU Serine (Ser) ! U | AUC Ile ACC Thr AAC Asn AGC Ser ! C | AUA Ile ACA Thr AAA Lysine (Lys) AGA Arginine (Arg) ! A | AUG Methionine (Met) or START ACG Thr AAG Lys AGG Arg ! G ! rowspan="4" | G | GUU Valine Val GCU Alanine (Ala) GAU Aspartic acid(Asp) GGU Glycine (Gly) ! U | GUC (Val) GCC Ala GAC Asp GGC Gly ! C | GUA Val GCA Ala GAA Glutamic acid (Glu) GGA Gly ! A | GUG Val GCG Ala GAG Glu GGG Gly ! G | ---- These are the codons as they are read on the sense (5' to 3') strand of DNA. Except that the nucleotide thymidine (T) is found in place of uridine (U), they read the same as RNA codons. However, mRNA is actually synthesized using the antisense strand of DNA (3' to 5') as the template. [Discussion] This table could well be called the Rosetta Stone of life. TTT Phe TCT Ser TAT Tyr TGT Cys TTC Phe TCC Ser TAC Tyr TGC Cys TTA Leu TCA Ser TAA STOP TGA STOP TTG Leu TCG Ser TAG STOP TGG Trp CTT Leu CCT Pro CAT His CGT Arg CTC Leu CCC Pro CAC His CGC Arg CTA Leu CCA Pro CAA Gln CGA Arg CTG Leu CCG Pro CAG Gln CGG Arg ATT Ile ACT Thr AAT Asn AGT Ser ATC Ile ACC Thr AAC Asn AGC Ser ATA Ile ACA Thr AAA Lys AGA Arg ATG Met* ACG Thr AAG Lys AGG Arg GTT Val GCT Ala GAT Asp GGT Gly GTC Val GCC Ala GAC Asp GGC Gly GTA Val GCA Ala GAA Glu GGA Gly GTG Val GCG Ala GAG Glu GGG Gly *When within gene; at beginning of gene, ATG signals start of translation. All but two of the amino acids (Met and Trp) can be encoded by from 2 to 6 different codons. However, the genome of most organisms reveals that certain codons are preferred over others. In humans, for example, alanine is encoded by GCC four times as often as by GCG. Why should this be? The answer is uncertain but probably reflects a greater translation efficiency by the translation apparatus (e.g., ribosomes) for certain codons over their synonyms. Codon bias even extends to pairs of codons: wherever a human protein contains the amino acids Ala-Glu, the gene encoding those amino acids is seven times as likely to use the codons GCAGAG rather than the synonymous GCCGAA. Codon bias is exploited by the biotechnology industry to improve the yield of the desired product. The ability to manipulate codon bias may also usher in a era of safer vaccines. Link to a discussion. The genetic code is almost universal. The same codons are assigned to the same amino acids and to the same START and STOP signals in the vast majority of genes in animals, plants, and microorganisms. However, some exceptions have been found. Most of these involve assigning one or two of the three STOP codons to an amino acid instead. When mitochondrial mRNA from animals or microorganisms (but not from plants) is placed in a test tube with the cytosolic protein-synthesizing machinery (amino acids, enzymes, tRNAs, ribosomes) it fails to be translated into a protein. The reason: these mitochondria use UGA to encode tryptophan (Trp) rather than as a chain terminator. When translated by cytosolic machinery, synthesis stops where Trp should have been inserted. In addition, most * animal mitochondria use AUA for methionine not isoleucine and * all vertebrate mitochondria use AGA and AGG as chain terminators. * Yeast mitochondria assign all codons beginning with CU to threonine instead of leucine (which is still encoded by UUA and UUG as it is in cytosolic mRNA). Plant mitochondria use the universal code, and this has permitted angiosperms to transfer mitochondrial genes to their nucleus with great ease. Link to discussion of mitochondrial genes. Violations of the universal code are far rarer for nuclear genes. A few unicellular eukaryotes have been found that use one or two (of their three) STOP codons for amino acids instead. The vast majority of proteins are assembled from the 20 amino acids listed above even though some of these may be chemically altered, e.g. by phosphorylation, at a later time. However, two cases have been found where an amino acid that is not one of the standard 20 is inserted by a tRNA into the growing polypeptide. * selenocysteine. This amino acid is encoded by UGA. UGA is still used as a chain terminator, but the translation machinery is able to discriminate when a UGA codon should be used for selenocysteine rather than STOP. This codon usage has been found in certain Archaea, eubacteria, and animals (humans synthesize 25 different proteins containing selenium). * pyrrolysine. In several species of Archaea and bacteria, this amino acid is encoded by UAG. How the translation machinery knows when it encounters UAG whether to insert a tRNA with pyrrolysine or to stop translation is not yet known. Welcome&Next Search ---- 28 February 2009 |}

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