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The French crusader Robert d'Artois leads a surprise attack on the Egyptian camp two miles from al-Mansurah in February; rejecting the advice of more seasoned soldiers, he presses ahead and is trapped in the city, hundreds of his knights are killed, his brother Louis IX arrives with the main army and gains a costly victory, the sultan's son Turan comes up with reinforcements, his men intercept Frankish supply ships from Damietta, the Egyptians defeat Louis's Seventh Crusaders at al-Mansurah, and the king is captured along with many of his men. Marguerite de Provence has just given birth to a son, whom she names Jean Tristan, but she procures enough food to keep the troops fed, persuades the Genoese and Pisans not to evacuate Damietta until it can be ceded by formal treaty and the king ransomed, she reinspires the crusaders, but the Battle of Fariskur April 6 ends in another victory for the Egyptians, who route the scurvy-weakened crusaders and massacre them, but the conduct of Egypt's new sultan offends the Mamelukes, or slave guards, who served his late father. (Originally purchased as slaves from the Georgian Caucasus, the Mamelukes have fought in the armies of the caliphs.) The Mamelukes assassinate the new sultan April 30; his mother, Shajar ad-Durr, proclaims herself "queen of the Muslims," but the Syrian emirs refuse to pay homage to a woman so the caliph Turanshah orders Egypt's emirs to choose a man. They dodge the order by appointing the Mameluke al-Muizz izz ad-Din al-Mansur Aybak commander in chief of the army, he promptly marries Shajar-ad-Durr and will rule despotically until his assassination in 1257 (see 1254). Turanshah releases Louis May 6 after he agrees to evacuate Damietta and to pay a record ransom of 800,000 gold pieces (1 million dinars); the king rejects pleas that he return home and will remain until 1254, strengthening fortresses and working to obtain the release of as many captives as possible. The Mamelukes will rule Egypt until 1517 and thereafter under Ottoman suzerainty until 1805 (see 1798).
Forces of the Danish prince Abel kill his brother Erik, who has reigned since the death of their father, Waldemar the Great, in 1241 as Erik IV Plovpenning; Abel will reign until his own death in 1252.
Sweden's Erik XI Eriksson dies at age 34 (approximate) after a 28-year reign in which his regent Birger Jarl has controlled power for the past 2 years. Leaving two daughters but no sons, Erik "Läspe" is succeeded by Birger's 7-year-old son, who is elected king through the machinations of Birger Jarl and will reign jointly with his father until the latter's death in 1266 and until 1275 as Valdemar Birgersson, but although he will never really rule his reign begins the Folkung dynasty that will rule Sweden until 1363.
The deposed Holy Roman Emperor Friedrich II dies of acute dysentery at Fierentino December 13 at age 55 after a 38-year reign. His death ends the Hohenstaufen dream of a strong central empire. Friedrich is succeeded as German king by his son, now 22, who narrowly escapes assassination at Regensburg and will reign until 1254 as Conrad IV.
England's Henry III confirms letters of protection to the "merchants of Germany," whose London Steelyard is an outpost of the fledgling Hanseatic League (see 1241; 1252).
Arabic numerals and the Arabic decimal system help Europeans calculate (see 1202); both of Indian origin, they have been introduced by returning crusaders and are far superior to Roman numerals for practical use.
Cinnamon, cloves, coriander, cumin, cubebs, ginger, mace, and nutmegs carried back by returning crusaders are now to be found in rich English and European houses but are in many cases valued more for supposed medical value than for culinary purposes.
Nonfiction: Mirror of History (Speculum naturale, historiale, doctrinale) by Vincent of Beauvais is an early encyclopedia.
The Black Book of Carmarthen is compiled in Wales.
Poetry: Heike by Japanese poet Yukinaga Shinanozenji is a popular epic account of the Taira family (see 825).
Chronicler Jean, sieur de Joinville, now 26, returns to France and will later write about the scurvy, "There came upon us the sickness of the host, which sickness was such that the flesh of our legs dried up, and the skin upon our legs became spotted; black and earth color like an old boot; and with us who had this sickness, the flesh of our gums putrefied; nor could anyone escape from this sickness but had to die. The sign of death was this, that when there was bleeding of the nose, then death was sure . . . The sickness began to increase in the host in such sort and the dead flesh to grow upon the gums of our people, that the barber surgeons had to remove the dead flesh in order that the people might masticate their food and swallow it" (see da Gama, 1499; Magellan, 1522; Cartier, 1535; Hawkins, 1593; Lancaster, 1601; Mayflower, 1620; Anson, 1741; Anson, 1744; Lind, 1747).
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