Benedict XII was one of the Avignon popes and is believed to have been born in Saverdun in the Comté de Foix (France) around the 1280s.

Dante Alighieri attended the University of Bologna in Italy, likely sometime around the early 1280s. He studied various subjects including rhetoric, philosophy, and theology during his time at the university.

A trade route that was most important to the Chinese. The silk road linked China to the rest of the world, and the merchants had protection while traveling on it. Marco Polo traveled on it during the middle ages.

Facts about the Battle of Crecy are sketchy with the passage of time. The precise tactics the English army used are guesswork. The work that is most often quoted (Froissart) was written many years after the event, and was a present to Philippa of Hainault, Edward III's queen. Over the years, the English in their wars against the Scots,had worked out a defensive system based on organised infantry and huge numbers of archers. Most historians think these archers were armed with the longbow. But even this is not certain. It is true that Englishmen of certain rank were required to practise with "the bow" Sundays and holidays. However, the word "longbow" does not appear until 1449, 103 years after Crecy. Furthermore, the stipulation that a man had to practise with a bow as tall as he, did not appear until 1465. For these reasons, the often repeated claim that the English archers were all armed with longbows is not a proven fact.

Owing to the terrain, (There is a huge steep-sloped bank at the French end of the battlefield.) The French army arrived piecemeal, with little or no time to appraise the battlefield. The first unit to engage the English were Genoese mercenary crossbowmen. According to the aforementioned Froissart account, the crossbowmen were put to flight by the English archers. The French then charged down their own crossbowmen. The orthodox reason given is that they were dissatisfied with them. However, the Genoese banner is a red cross on a white background - the same as England's St George's cross - and the French may have attacked their own men because they thought they were English.

The English fought defensively. They had chosen their own hill, and rested there until the arrival of the French. The English fought on foot, probably armed with spears and other pole weapons. There is some doubt as to how their archers were deployed, but most military historians think they were arranged in wings on either side of their men-at-arms ranks. It is suspected that their men-at-arms interacted with crossbowmen and elite archers, a tactic the English had been using since the 1280s. The English had brought a small number of cannon with them to knock down castle walls. These took part in the battle, although they were not particularly effective. It is not known where they were deployed.

As the French approached, they first had to endure arrows, then pottes and calthrops placed in front of the men-at-arms to impede the French, before they were able to engage in hand-to-hand fighting. It is said that the English had to endure sixteen onslaughts by cavalry and infantry before the French withdrew. Edward III forbade pursuit, because the valley below them was still full of huge numbers of French soldiers.

Edward I (1239--1307), king of England (1272--1307). When Edward came to the throne he was already an experienced general and politician. He had played the major role in the defeat of Simon de Montfort in 1265, the battle of Eveshambeing very much his own personal triumph; he was in control of the mopping-up operations that lasted into 1267; and he had taken a leading role in the deliberations of his father's council before departing on crusade in 1270. He returned with a considerable reputation, and for the rest of his life was widely considered as the expected saviour of the Holy Land. His experience of the traumas and the issues of the civil war of the 1260s informed his approach to English affairs when he became king. He appreciated that reform was needed and that Parliament was a necessary institution. The first 20 years of the reign were remarkably successful in this regard, the period marked especially by a great series of statutes which had an enduring significance, and which largely proceeded in response to the grievances of his subjects. These same years also saw Edward's successful scotching of Welsh independence, following his two campaigns of 1277 and 1282--3, symbolically marked by the ten great castles, including Caernarfon, Conwy, and Beaumaris, that he constructed.

The early 1290s proved to be the turning-point in the reign and in Edward's fortunes. Increasing financial problems and domestic political tension, associated with the wars against the French and the Scots, replaced the more relaxed atmosphere of the 1270s and 1280s. It culminated in the crisis of 1297, but it is a measure of Edward's power and authority that although rebellion threatened, none actually rose in revolt---then, or at any other time---something that cannot be said of any of his predecessors since 1066, or of many of his successors.

On his tomb in Westminster abbey Edward is described famously as the 'hammer of the Scots'. But this is far from the truth. He acted as arbitrator between the claimants to the Scottish throne (the Great Cause of 1291--2), but on the understanding that he be accepted as feudal overlord of the kingdom. The throne was adjudged to John Balliol, rather than his chief rival, Robert Bruce, and Edward's attempts to secure Balliol and exercise his overlordship proved to be the beginning of the long-drawn-out Scottish War of Independence. The campaign of 1296 was intended to be as decisive as the conquest of Wales. Edward was victorious, symbolically removed the 'stone of destiny' from Scone to Westminster abbey, and established his own administration. But it was only a temporary settlement and Edward soon found himself in something of a medieval Vietnam from which he could not withdraw. He lived to see Robert Bruce crowned king in 1306, and it is highly indicative of his dogged determination that he should die leading yet another expedition toScotland in 1307.

Edward 'Longshanks' was physically impressive and even in old age retained his physical presence. He stood head and shoulders above most men: when his tomb was opened in 1774, the body was measured at 6 feet 2 inches. He met most of the contemporary expectations of a king. He was a very able soldier and general, who possessed considerable courage. He was also a very competent organizer who, like his great-uncle Richard I, appreciated the importance of supply and transport. His military career was notable, although his victories against the Montfortians and the Welsh need to be balanced against defeats by the Scots and French. In most ways he lived up to the chivalric ideals of his age. As a young man, in particular, he was conspicuous for his enthusiasm for tournaments and other chivalric pursuits, and his devotion to the crusading cause is especially notable. (He took the cross again in 1287, but the matter of the Scottish succession and the outbreak of war with France unhinged all plans for departure.) But he could be cruel, as when he imprisoned Bruce's sister Mary, the countess of Buchan, in apparently inhuman conditions in 1306. He may well have sought to make a public example of them, and by then the Scottish war had become extremely savage. His violent temper, shared with his Angevin predecessors, may also have contributed. An account book records the cost of repairs to his daughter Elizabeth's coronet in 1297 after Edward had hurled it into the fire. And on one occasion he even assaulted his eldest son and heir, the future Edward II, tearing out his hair.

Yet, his eldest son apart---at least in Edward I's later years---he was devoted to his family. In particular, his love and fondness for his first queen, Eleanor of Castile, is legendary and the marriage was plainly both happy and fruitful. (There were probably fourteen children in all.) Indeed, it is possible that the marked change in character of the reign following her death in 1290 owed not a little to Edward's sense of personal loss. He grieved her deeply, and in the famous Eleanor crosses, twelve in all, one constructed at each stopping-point of the funeral cortège between Harby (Notts.), where she died, and Westminster abbey, where she lies buried, Edward constructed the most elaborate series of monuments ever created for an English queen (or king).

In his considerable achievements, especially in legislation and government, Edward was one of the most notable of English medieval kings, but those achievements have to be set against equally considerable failures, and the poisoned chalice of Anglo-Scottish relations, combined with chronic financial difficulties, which he bequeathed to his son.