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England's lord privy seal John Russell, 1st earl of Bedford, returns from Spain, where he has gone to conclude the marriage treaty between Mary I and Felipe II, but he dies at London March 14 at age 69 (approximate).
The Religious Peace of Augsburg September 25 compromises differences between Catholics and Protestants, ending a period of religious wars in the German states. Each prince may choose which religion shall be followed in his realm. An imperial army led by Cosimo de' Medici, 36, duke of Florence, has forced a French army to end its 15-month siege of Siena and surrender in April (see 1557).
A long period of peace settles on Europe as the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V turns over full imperial authority to his brother Ferdinand, now 52, and sovereignty in the Netherlands to his son Felipe (Philip), now 28, in formal ceremonies October 25 in the Hall of the Golden Fleece at Brussels. Now 55, Charles is dyspeptic, gouty, and uncontrollably gluttonous. Ferdinand asks that formal abdication be delayed until 1558 but begins a reign that will continue until 1564 (see 1556).
Genoese statesman and admiral Andrea Doria retires at age 88, turning command of his fleet over to his grandnephew Giovanni Andrea Doria.
The Persian shah Tahmasp I concludes peace with the Ottoman Empire after years of religious and military conflict.
The former Mughal emperor Humayun captures Lahore in February, defeats an Afghan claimant to the throne, reoccupies Delhi and Agra in July, and begins a second reign that will continue only until January of next year.
Burma's king Braginoco (Bayinnaung) captures the ancient capital of Ava and place the Shan under Burmese rule (see 1554; Siam, 1563).
Japanese pirates lay siege to Nanjing (Nanking) (see 1555).
French Huguenots settle Rio de Janeiro Bay in Brazil under the leadership of Nicolas Durand de Villegagnon (but see 1567).
A translation of Peter Martyr's 1516 Italian work De Rebus Oceanicis et Novo Orbe by Richard Eden stimulates English interest in America.
The Muscovy Company (the Association of Merchant Adventurers) founded by Richard Chancellor, Sebastian Cabot, and others to trade with Russia is the first of the great English trading companies (see 1553). Granted a monopoly in the Russian trade, it is a joint-stock company whose capital is to remain in use on a regular basis rather than being repaid after each voyage (see 1561; East India Company, 1600).
English authorities release London-born alchemist, astrologer, and mathematician John Dee from prison on orders from Mary Tudor. Now 28, Dee studied and lectured on the Continent from 1547 to 1550, returned home 4 years ago, was granted a government pension, became astrologer to the queen, but was soon thereafter imprisoned on charges of being a magician.
L'Histoire de la nature des oyseaux by French naturalist Pierre Belon, 38, is a pioneer study of birds.
Bohemian physician-mine owner-mineralogist Georgius Agricola (Georg Bauer) dies at Chemnitz November 21 at age 61.
Pope Julius III dies at Rome March 23 at age 67; his successor, Marcellus II, dies April 30 at age 54, and Gian Pietro Carafa, 78, is elected to the papacy May 23 through the influence of Alessandro Cardinal Farnese. He will reign until 1559 as Paul IV. The new pope extends the powers of the Universal Inquisition founded by Paul III in 1542; he orders that Rome's Jewish quarter be surrounded by a wall, creating the ghetto of Rome. "God has imposed servitude until they should have recognized their errors," says the pope.
An officer of the Inquisition named Paramo writes that the Holy Office has burnt at least 30,000 "witches" in the past 150 years, thus saving the world from destruction.
German Reformation leader Justus Jonas dies at Eisfeld, Saxony, October 9 at age 62.
Bloody Mary returns Roman Catholicism to England, persecuting Protestants. Hugh Latimer, bishop of Worcester, and Nicholas Ridley, bishop of London, have been imprisoned for 2 years on charges of heresy, and the queen has them burnt at the stake October 16 in front of Balliol College at Oxford University. Bishop Latimer, now 70, says to Bishop Ridley, 55, "Be of good comfort, Master Ridley, and play the man. We shall this day light such a candle by God's grace in England as I trust shall never be put out" (see Cranmer, 1556).
Portuguese Jesuit missions to Ethiopia begin under the direction of Pedro Paez and will continue until 1603.
Oxford's Trinity College is founded by Sir Thomas Pope and will open next to Balliol in Broad Street (see Christ Church, 1546; Pembroke, 1621).
Nonfiction: Mithridates: De differentis linguis by Konrad Gesner at Zürich is an account of about 130 known languages.
Poetry: Amours de Marie by Pierre de Ronsard.
Painting: St. George and the Dragon by Tintoretto; The Chess-Game and Portrait of a Dominican Astronomer by Sofonisba Anguissola; The Rest on the Flight into Egypt by Caterina van Hemessen, who last year married the organist of Antwerp's cathedral.
Sculpture: Pietà by Michelangelo, who has spent 5 years creating the work for the Duomo at Florence; Perseus by Benvenuto Cellini.
The new pope Paul IV pensions off Giovanni P. da Palestrina along with two other members of the Sistine choir. Palestrina is appointed choir-master of the Church of St. John Lateran but will give up the post in 1558 after composing a book of magnificats and lamentations—settings of the Holy Week lessons from the Lamentations of Jeremiah (see 1552; 1558).
Villa Giulia is completed for Pope Julius III, who dies before he can occupy the summer palace. It has been designed by architect Giacomo da Vignola (Giacomo Barozzi), 48, in collaboration with Giorgio Vasari and Bartolommeo Ammanati.
Rome's Palazzo Farnese is completed by Giacomo da Vignola and Michelangelo.
Constantinople's Mihrimah Mosque is completed to designs by the architect Sinon. Built of concrete, the domed structure is 66 feet in diameter.
Famine grips England; the peasantry discovers that peas taste good green as well as dried.
Turkeys can be had in English markets for as little as 4 shillings, whereas a swan or crane fetches 10.
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