1812
1811 1812 1813 1814 1815 1816 1817 1818 1819 1820
Napoleon invades Russia (see commerce, 1811) as Britain and the United States go to war over issues that include British impressment (abduction) of U.S. seamen.
The Treaty of Bucharest signed May 28 ends a 6-year war between Russia and the Ottoman Turks, who cede Bessarabia to Russia. Russian forces have occupied Moldavia and Wallachia, and Russia now annexes the most fertile part of Moldavia—a territory between the Prut and Dneister rivers whose population is 90 percent Romanian. The Prut becomes the new Russian-Turkish border, and Russia receives guarantees that her ships can use the Danube for trading purposes.
Former Dutch admiral Jan De Winter dies at Paris June 2 at age 62.
The Grande Armée of nearly 600,000 men that invades Russia June 24 includes Austrians (under the command of Field Marshal Karl Philipp Schwarzenberg), Dutch, Germans, Italians, Poles, Prussians, and Swiss as well as Frenchmen, but 80,000 are sick with dysentery, enteric fever, or typhus after the Battle of Ostrowo July 12, and thousands of their horses have died. Lithuanian-born Mikhail Bogdanovich, General Barclay de Tolly, 50, lost an arm 5 years ago fighting Napoleon at the Battle of Eylau, Czar Aleksandr I has made him minister of war and given him command of an army, but he is defeated at Smolensk, forced to resign, and replaced by Mikhail Kutuzov, now 66. The Battle of Borodino September 26 (September 7 Old Style) is a bloody encounter on the Moskova River: Knyaz (Prince) Pyotr Ivanovich Bagration, 47, is killed, as are thousands on both sides. The wily field marshal Prince Kutuzov retreats to save his army. Napoleon enters Moscow, but most of the city's 300,000 inhabitants have fled, and fires set by the Russians burn much of Moscow in the next 5 days. Foot soldier Nicolas Chauvin's unswerving devotion to the emperor and all things military has led to the coining of the word chauvinism, but one-quarter of Napoleon's army deserted even before the Battle of Borodino and the survivors are exhausted.
The Battle of Tarutino at the Chernishna River October 18 (October 6 Old Style) ends in victory for the Russian infantry of General Dmitri S. Dokhturov and the cossack cavalry of General Vasily Vasilievich Orlov-Denisov, 37, who take a further toll of Napoleon's forces, but the French inflict heavy losses and retire in good order. The little corporal begins a retreat from Moscow October 19; his army moves west through country that has been laid waste to deny it sustenance, and the retreat turns into a rout as the army runs out of provisions. Marshal Kutuzov defeats Marshal Michel Ney, 43, who has led the rear guard, and defeats Marshal Davout at Smolensk in November, although Ney acquits himself with such heroism, as he did at Borodino, that he will receive the title Prince of the Moskwa (Marshal Kutuzov receives the title Prince of Smolensk). Field Marshal Schwarzenberg retreats into Austrian territory, thereby facilitating a link-up between Russian and Prussian forces, and will hereafter lead the court faction favoring war against Napoleon. The emperor hears rumors of a coup at Paris and leaves his army on the evening of December 5, having given orders that it is to regroup at Vilna, but the troops that stagger into that city in -20° F. weather can think only of trying to eat and keep warm. Crippled by hunger, cold, frostbite, and lack of salt, harassed by Cossack troops and Russian irregulars wearing silks, kerchiefs, and women's clothes, the Grand Armées remnants leave Vilna December 10 as the Russians approach; the invading force has dwindled to no more than 95,000 by mid-December, when those who have not been killed, died of hunger, or frozen to death finally straggle across the Nieman River.
A 15,000-man Allied army under the command of Viscount Wellington lays siege to the fortress city of Ciudad Rodrigo on the Spanish-Portuguese border 50 miles west of Salamanca January 7 and storms its ramparts January 19, killing or wounding 300, taking 1,500 prisoners, and capturing 153 guns; his own casualties number 710 killed, including General Robert Craufurd, and 580 wounded; a 32,000-man Allied army under the earl of Wellington lays siege to the fortress of Badajoz March 16 and takes it by storm April 6.
Britain's prime minister Spencer Perceval is shot May 11 while entering the House of Commons and dies at age 49 (deranged and bankrupt Liverpool broker John Bellingham will be convicted of murder and hanged); Perceval is succeeded June 8 by London-born secretary for war and the colonies Robert Banks Jenkinson, 41, 2nd earl of Liverpool, who will serve until 1827 under the shadow of his more brilliant colleagues George Canning and Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh.
British forces under the earl of Wellington defeat the French July 22 at Salamanca, 100 miles northwest of Madrid, where Marshal Auguste Marmont's Army of Portugal has tried to stem his advance with 46,600 infantry, 3,400 cavalry, and 78 guns. Wellington has 47,449 infantry, 3,254 cavalry, and 60 guns but takes 7,000 prisoners, captures 20 guns, and leaves 7,000 dead or wounded (his own casualties total 5,200). Among those severely wounded on the French side is Marshal Marmont; those lightly wounded on the British side include Irish-born lieutenant William F. P. (Francis Patrick) Napier, 26. Wellington enters Madrid in mid-August but withdraws in October to winter quarters in Portugal. Spaniards not under French control adopt the Constitution of Cádiz (but see 1813).
The War of 1812 begins June 18 as the United States declares war on Britain (seeLeopard-Chesapeake affair, 1807). Parliament has acted 2 days earlier to rescind at least temporarily its January 1807 Order in Council prohibiting neutral nations from trading with Napoleon's France or her allies, but news of that action has not yet reached Washington, D.C. Undaunted by the fact that the War Department is a shambles, the U.S. Army has only 6,700 men led by superannuated commanders, and the U.S. Navy only nine frigates plus eight smaller ships to face a Royal Navy with 1,048 vessels, a handful of "War Hawks" has been pressing for months to have Congress appropriate funds for military preparations. New Englanders have urged caution, and House minority leader Josiah Quincy, 40, of Massachusetts antagonizes his colleagues by his violent opposition to the war (he will resign from Congress next year), but President Madison has sent a war message to Congress June 1.
President Madison names Continental Army veteran Henry Dearborn, now 61, senior major general in command of the northern border, General Dearborn delays action, but a force of 2,000 U.S. troops invades Canada from Detroit in July under the command of former Continental Army officer William Hull, now 59, who has been made a brigadier general but pursues such a cautious, time-consuming strategy that he is easily outmaneuvered and defeated by the British. Gen. Dearborn has failed to advance on Niagara, British troops under the command of Gen. Isaac Brock reinforce their positions in the West, and they force Hull back to Detroit. General Hull orders the evacuation of Fort Dearborn on Lake Michigan; its inhabitants are massacred August 15 by Indians while being escorted to Fort Wayne, and all are killed including 12 children. Fort Dearborn is sacked and burned August 16 and General Hull forced to surrender; he will be court-martialed, convicted of cowardice and neglect of duty, and sentenced to be shot in 1814, but President Madison will stay his sentence in light of his service during the American Revolution.
Boston-born master-commandant David Porter, 32, wins promotion to captain July 2, leaves port the next day aboard the U.S.S. Essex, captures the British ship Alert, and goes on to take eight other prizes, but aside from their brigs and sloops the Americans have only eight frigates, and although three of them are superior in firepower to anything in the Royal Navy the British have more than 600 cruisers at sea.
The British frigate H.M.S. Guerrière that has seized so many U.S. seamen comes to grief off Nova Scotia August 19 when it encounters the 14-year-old U.S. frigate Constitution under the command of Isaac Hull, 39. Nicknamed "Old Ironsides" because enemy cannonballs appear to bounce off her tumble home, the U.S.S. Constitution reached the open waters of the Atlantic July 17, was sighted off the coast of southern New Jersey by the Guerrière and a squadron of five other British ships, came under continuous fire for 60 hours, but despite unfavorable winds succeeded in eluding the enemy and reaching safety in Boston; her victory gives heart to the Americans.
The U.S. sloop Wasp under the command of Jacob Jones, 44, captures the frigate H.M.S. Frolic October 18, but Jones loses both his prize and his own ship when he encounters the 74-gun British vessel H.M.S. Poictiers while en route home.
The frigate U.S.S. United States under the command of Stephen Decatur defeats the frigate H.M.S. Macedonian October 25.
H.M.S. Java is defeated and destroyed off the coast of Brazil December 20 by the U.S.S. Constitution, this time under the command of William Bainbridge, 38, but while the U.S. victories at sea win wide acclaim in America, the British blockade U.S. ports and actually enjoy more success in the sea war than do the Americans.
Louisiana enters the Union April 30 as the 18th state.
The Mississippi Territory is established May 14 (see statehood, 1817), the Missouri Territory west of the Mississippi River June 4 (see statehood, 1821).
U.S. frontiersmen eager for lands that may be gained by war give James Madison his margin of victory over New York's Lieut. Governor De Witt Clinton, now 43, in the November elections. Eastern shipping interests support Clinton and say President Madison's neutrality policy is helping the despot Napoleon, "war hawks" support Madison, Clinton carries every northern state except Pennsylvania and Vermont, but the South continues to enjoy a majority in the Electoral College by virtue of the three-fifths rule adopted in the Constitution, and Madison receives 128 electoral votes to Clinton's 89, easily winning reelection.
The term gerrymander is introduced to describe the redrawing of election district boundaries for political purposes. When the Massachusetts legislature redraws senatorial districts to isolate Federalist strongholds and ensure Republican domination of future elections, painter Gilbert Stuart adds a head, wings, and claws to a map of the districts, saying, "That will do for a salamander." Editor Benjamin Russell of the Centinel replies, "Better say a Gerrymander," but Governor Elbridge Gerry has not been responsible for the redistricting (now 68, Gerry wins election as vice president under James Madison; see human rights, 1960).
A March 26 earthquake in Venezuela spares territories held by the Spanish royalists but wreaks havoc among Francisco de Miranda's revolutionists, demoralizing the liberation forces (see 1811). Priests call the catastrophe divine retribution for disloyalty, Miranda is made dictator to reorganize the revolutionary elements, but he surrenders in July at San Mateo when he sees that his position is hopeless, Simón Bolívar and the other revolutionary leaders regard the surrender as treasonable, they block Miranda's escape, he falls into Spanish hands, and the Spaniards send him in chains to Cádiz (see Bolívar, 1813).
The Cádiz Constitution promulgated by Spain's cortes (national assembly May 8 provides for universal suffrage and other democratic principles; see 1836). It also provides for colonial representation in the Spanish parliament and elections for municipal and provincial offices; the reforms spark increased demand for democracy among Creole populations in Latin America. Ferdinand VII will annul the constitution in 1814.
Mexican revolutionists led by José María Morelos take Oaxaca and move on to Acapulco, but the peasant army commits atrocities against elite Creoles (see 1811; 1813).
Spanish colonial troops quickly suppress revolutions in the captaincy general of Guatemala, which includes territory that will become Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Chiapas.
Chilean revolutionist José Miguel Carrera finds his dictatorial rule opposed by patriot Bernardo O'Higgins, 34 (see 1811; 1817).
The Anglo-Nepal War in the Himalayas wins renown for the Nepali Ghurkas, who stand their ground against the colonial invaders. The tough fighting men offer to join forces with the British rather than continue the battle, and the British are quick to accept (see 1857).
Russian colonists build Fort Ross above the mouth of California's Russian River as a base from which to hunt sea otters and grow food for Russian fur-trading colonies such as the one at Sitka, Alaska (see 1811).
Scottish settlers begin arriving in late summer at the Red River Colony established near the mouth of the Assiniboine River in what later will be Manitoba by Thomas Douglas, 5th earl of Selkirk, who 4 years ago traveled from Halifax, Nova Scotia, to York (later Toronto) via Boston and Montréal to study the feasibility of relieving Scotland's Highland poverty through emigration (see population, 1805). The financially troubled Hudson's Bay Company has sold Selkirk 116,000 square miles for 10 shillings, but Simon Fraser and other fur traders of the North West Company consider the colony's 100 settlers a threat to their operations (see commerce, 1816).
Ipswich, Massachusetts-born mariner Augustine Heard, 26, sets sail for Guangzhou (Canton) February 18 as master of the brig Caravan with cargo worth $80,000. Son of a prominent shipowner and merchant, Heard is a Philips Academy Exeter dropout who at age 19 sailed to Calcutta on a 2-year voyage; he is intent on building a fortune (see 1830).
The Luddite riots that began in March of last year spread to Yorkshire, Lancashire, Derbyshire, and Leicestershire as wheat prices soar and inflate the price of bread. By February they have smashed about a thousand frames valued at between £6,000 and £10,000, blackening their faces to conceal their identities. The government of prime minister Spencer Perceval proposes in February that machine breaking be made a capital offense, poet Lord Byron delivers a stirring address against the idea February 27 in the House of Lords, Lord Liverpool says, "I am satisfied that government or parliament never meddle in these matters . . . The evils inseparable from the state of things should not be charged to any governmnet," but the Frame Breaking Act adopted by Parliament permits the death sentence for anyone convicted of destroying machinery. The government orders 12,000 troops into affected areas, but wheat prices have risen, workers are unable to feed their families, and in April the Luddites burn a Lancashire mill in West Houghton. When 150 of them attack William Cartwright's mill at Rawfolds outside Huttersfield April 11, Cartwright and a few soldiers hold them off with musketfire, killing two of them. Public opinion supports the rioters, especially after soldiers shoot down a band of Luddites at the request of the hot-tempered manufacturer William Horsfall, who has employed 400 men in Ottiwell's Mill at Marsden, but Horsfall's murder April 28 turns opinion against the Luddites. The authorities round up more than 100 suspects, indict 64, execute three for murdering Horsfall, and hang another 14 for attacking Cartwright's mill at Rawfolds. Eight Lancashire men are sentenced to death during the summer for attacking the cotton mills, 13 are transported to Australia, and another 15 executed at York (see 1813).
Gold, English guineas, Dutch gulden, and French Napoleon d'or finance the duke of Wellington in his peninsular campaign (see 1801). Asked by the British government to help, the eight sons of Frankfurt banker Mayer Amschel Rothschild smuggle the money south, communicating in Yiddish and using fake passports, false names, disguises, and bribes to elude the French and organize what amounts to the world's first international bank clearing house, but Mayer Rothschild dies at his native Frankfurt-am-Main September 19 at age 69 (see N. M. Rothschild, 1799; 1815).
Spain holds a national lottery as British troops help her drive out the French. The first drawing is held at Cádiz, and the event will grow to become a Christmastime tradition, with what may be the world's largest jackpot divided among thousands of winners.
Philadelphia's Girard Bank is founded by merchant Stephen Girard with more than $1 million obtained in the shipping trade (see 1805).
The City Bank of New York that opens June 16 at 52 Wall Street has been created by former Treasury commissioner Colonel Samuel Osgood, now 65, who has been naval officer of the Port of New York since 1803 and has taken over the ailing First Bank of the United States founded in 1791 (see 1865).
Entrepreneur Nathaniel Stevens starts a textile manufacturing business at North Andover, Massachusetts, as the war increases demand for woolen fabric to be used in uniforms (see 1837).
Newburyport, Massachusetts-born entrepreneur Francis Cabot Lowell, 37, charters a cotton fabric company (the Boston Manufacturing Co.) at Waltham, Massachusetts, in association with his brother-in-law Patrick Tracy Jackson, 33. Lowell visited England from 1810 until this year, ostensibly for reasons of health, and recorded in his sketchbook the designs and specifications of English textile machinery (see 1814; Slater, 1789).
Congress gives Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin authority in December to raise $16 million to finance prosecution of the war with Britain. New Englanders oppose "Mr. Madison's war," and Boston subscribes only $75,000 as compared with $5.72 million from New York and $6.86 million from Philadelphia. Gallatin will ask President Madison to relieve him of his position and appoint him U.S. ambassador to Russia.
The war cuts off U.S. imports of bituminous coal from Britain. Philadelphia businessman William Wurts goes on a hiking trip in the Lackawaxen Valley and notices outcroppings of black stone, shows specimens to his brothers Charles and Maurice, and persuades them to see for themselves. No stoves yet exist that can burn anthracite coal (see 1808), and the Wurts brothers find little enthusiasm, but they will persevere, buy up valuable land for almost nothing, make their first shipment in 1820 of 365 tons, but find it difficult to get their coal to market (see 1813; transportation [Delaware & Hudson Canal], 1823).
British National Light and Heat Company is chartered by the Brussels-born German promoter Frederick Albert Winsor, now 49, who lighted one side of London's Pall Mall with gas in 1807 and has recognized the possibilities of piping gas from a central plant to consumers through a system of London gas mains (see 1804). His German employers dismiss Winsor for incompetence, but the company will erect a London gasworks in 1814 and supply gas to lamps in the parish of St. Margarets, Westminster. Similar companies will spring up in other cities, and the age of gas lighting will arrive in Britain (see 1819).
Engineer Arthur Woolf returns to his native Cornwall and introduces his steam engine for pumping water out of mines (see 1804). After James Watt's patent expired 2 years ago Woolf revived the Jonathan Hornblower compound engine of 1781 and improved it.
The five-ton steam locomotive Salamanca appears in public June 24 at the England's Middleton Colliery, where it proves to be a cheap way of transporting coal to the nearby town of Leeds (see Trevithick, 1804); patented last year by engineer and colliery manager John Blenkinsop, now 29, and developed with help from Matthew Murray, now 47, the locomotive has two vertical cylinders within the top of its boiler, pistons drive its cog-toothed driving wheels through rods and pinions, and it runs on a racked rail. Blenkinsop and Murray have decided that a locomotive with smooth wheels on smooth rails would not have enough traction to propel both itself and a heavy load; the Salamanca can haul a 90-ton load at four miles per hour, replacing 50 horses and 200 men. Blenkinsop and Murray produce three more such engines, and despite their high operating cost and vulnerability to wear they will remain in use until 1835 (see Stephenson, 1814; Marsh, 1869).
Scottish engineer Henry Bell, 45, pioneers European steam navigation with his three-horsepower steamboat Comet; he will operate the 12-foot (3½-meter) craft on the Clyde for the next 8 years between Glasgow and Greenock (see 1816; New Orleans, 1811).
A "pusher" machine patented by Nottingham inventors S. Clark and J. Mart will be modified in 1825 to produce a twisted patterned lace that can be produced far more cheaply than handmade lace. It will be combined in 1839 with features of the 1801 Jacquard loom, enabling it to rival Chantilly and other handmade laces in every respect except the outlining thread, which will continue to be made by hand.
Eli Whitney receives a second government contract, this one for 15,000 muskets (see 1801). Clockmakers from New Haven and the Naugatuck Valley come to observe Whitney's methods and his crude milling machines for chipping and planing metals, a new machine-tool industry begins to flourish in New England, Whitney will grow rich from his army supply business, and his success will attract other gunmakers to his manufacturing ideas (see Colt, 1836).
Sutton, Massachusetts-born machinist Thomas Blanchard, 24, invents a machine that can make 500 tacks per minute. He will become better known for devising a lathe that can turn and finish gun barrels in one operation.
The 30-month War of 1812 will encourage U.S. manufacturing (it will otherwise gain nothing for either side), and U.S. agriculture will begin its long, slow yielding of supremacy to industry.
Physicist and engineer Etienne-Louis Malus dies of phthisis at Paris February 24 at age 36.
Swiss traveler-orientalist Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, 27, visits Petra in the Middle East August 22, finding ruins of a small fort built by Crusaders in the 12th century on ruins of the ancient Arab city 180 miles south of Aman. Local legend says that Moses brought forth water from a rock at Petra during the flight of the Israelites from Egypt but an earthquake leveled the city in 350 A.D.
Récherches sur les ossemens fossiles by Baron Cuvier founds the science of paleontology (see 1798).
German geologist-mineralogist Friedrich Mohs, 39, devises a rough scale for measuring the resistance of a smooth surface to scratching or abrasion. He uses 10 minerals to which he has given arbitrary values of hardness. While not suitable for gauging the hardness of ceramics, steel, or other industrial materials, the Mohs scale will make it much easier to identify minerals in the field.
Russian organic chemist and technician Gottlieb Sigismund Kirchoff, 48, suggests the first understanding of catalytic processes. He shows that starch breaks down to the simple sugar glucose when boiled with dilute sulfuric acid.
Saltpeter manufacturer Bernard Courtois gives samples of what later will be called iodine to his chemist friends Charles Bernard Desormes, 35, and Nicholas Clément, 33, who share some with André Ampère (see Courtois, 1811). Ampère will show it to chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (see 1813). Iodine will ultimately be used as an antiseptic and to purify drinking water.
Napoleon's surgeon Jean-Dominique, Baron Larrey performs 200 amputations in 24 hours after the Battle of Borodino. Now 46, he publishes the first description of the diseased condition that later will be called trench foot.
Surgeon Guillaume Dupuytren, 34, of the Hôtel Dieu, Paris, becomes the first to excise a patient's lower jaw. He also pioneers ligations of the subclavian artery.
The New England Journal of Medicine begins publication under the name New England Journal of Medicine and Surgery.
Unitarian clergyman Joseph Stevens Buckminster dies of epilepsy at Boston June 9 at age 28, having preached at the Battle Street Church since 1804 and encouraged his parishioners to read the scriptures in their historical context and subject them to the same scrupulous scholarly investigation given other texts from antiquity.
Congress reorganizes the 10-year-old U.S. Military Academy at West Point April 29 and increases the size of the corps of cadets to 250, expanding the engineering school's staff and establishing a 4-year curriculum (see Thayer, 1817).
Poetry: Childe Harold's Pilgrimage by Lord Byron, whose first two cantos deal with his travels and love affairs of 1809 and 1810; Tales in Verse by George Crabbe; Tour of Dr. Syntax in Search of the Picturesque by Gloucestershire-born poet William Combe, 71, whose book has illustrations by Thomas Rowlandson and will enjoy tremendous popularity.
Poet Joel Barlow dies of hypothermia at Zarnowiec, Poland, December 24 at age 58, having been sent to France last year to negotiate a commercial treaty with Napoleon and been caught up in the retreat from Moscow.
Painting: The Duke of Wellington, Time and the Old Women, The Panic, and The Majas on the Balcony by Francisco de Goya; Mounted Officer of the Imperial Guard by (Jean Louis André) Théodore Géricault, 21 (the first French romantic painter), who has studied under Pierre-Narcisse Guérin; A Mother Receiving the Confidences of Her Daughter by Constance Charpentier; Time of Her Departure from Vienna, Distributing Her Mother's Diamonds to Her Brothers and Sisters, March, 1810 by Pauline Auzou; The Children of the Duke of Rovigo by Marie Eléonore Godefroid; Unfortunate Mother by Constance Mayer; Dr. Samuel Coates by English-born Philadelphia portrait painter Thomas Sully, 29, who was raised in South Carolina.
The camera lucida invented by William Hyde Wollaston uses mirrors to project the image of an external object on a plane surface so that its outline may be traced.
Theater: Sarah Siddons appears at Covent Garden 6/29 as Lady Macbeth in Shakespeare's 1606 tragedy and bids farewell to the stage at age 57, although she will continue to make occasional appearances and give readings.
First performances: Overture to King Stephen by Ludwig van Beethoven 2/9 at Budapest's Neues Deutsches Theater, for a new play by August Friedrich von Kotzebue, 50.
Lady Hamilton goes to an English debtors' prison at age 47, having squandered her late husband's fortune in just 9 years (see 1800; Lord Chesterfield, 1774). A friend helps her escape to Calais, where she will die in 1815.
Paris police establish a Brigade de Sûreté with Eugène François Vidocq as its chief (see 1809). He has staged an escape from prison and is allowed to recruit 12 former convicts as full-time plainclothesmen; a master of disguises, Vidocq and his force will infiltrate the underworld and prove far more efficient than the regular police in apprehending criminals (see 1827).
New Haven's Center Church is completed to designs by Connecticut-born architect Ithiel Town, 27.
An earthquake March 26 destroys 90 percent of Caracas, killing about 20,000 in the Venezuelan capital.
Russian colonists at Fort Ross in California plant apple trees (including some that produce the slightly lopsided, round, red-flecked yellow Gravenstein variety) and other fruits (see grapes, 1817). Originally from northern Europe, Gravensteins will be harvested in August and September from vast orchards outside Sebastopol, north of Yerba Buena (San Francisco), and will be widely used in applesauce and apple juice as well as for eating raw.
British wheat prices skyrocket to £30 per cwt, the highest level ever and one that will not be matched for another 160 years (see 1798; 1834).
An English canning factory established at Bermondsey by Bryan Donkin produces tinned foods for British naval and military forces, but such foods remain unavailable to the public which is hard-pressed by high prices (see 1810; Donkin-Hall, 1814).
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