1811 1812 1813 1814 1815 1816 1817 1818 1819 1820
Britain's George III dies at Windsor Castle January 29 at age 81 and is succeeded by the corpulent prince regent George Augustus Frederick, now 57, who has ruled since 1811 and will reign until 1830 as George IV. The new king's official wife, Caroline of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, now 51, is no longer Princess of Wales; refused a passport by the French ministry, she obtains one as a private traveler from the British consul and demands recognition as queen. Her profligate husband offers her an annual income of £3,000 on condition that she remain abroad, never take any royal title, and not attempt to exercise any royal rights. Refusing the offer, she arrives at London June 7, and the new king's coronation is postponed as he continues his efforts to obtain a divorce. A Bill of Pains and Penalties is introduced in the House of Commons July 5 and the House of Lords August 17 to deprive "Her Majesty Queen Caroline Amelia Elisabeth of the title, prerogatives, rights, and privileges of queen consort of this realm and to dissolve the marriage between His Majesty and said Caroline Amelia Elisabeth," but the public rallies to her cause, the peers find only flimsy evidence to support allegations against her, and the bill is dropped November 10. London, Glasgow, Manchester, Liverpool, Edinburgh, Dublin, and other major cities are illuminated for 3 nights to celebrate (see 1821).
France's royal heir presumptive sustains a mortal wound as he leaves the Paris Opéra February 13 and dies the next day at age 42. Saddler and Bonapartist fanatic Louis-Pierre Louvel has boasted that he would wipe out the royal line by killing the last Bourbon young enough to produce a male heir. A nephew of Louis XVIII, Charles-Ferdinand de Bourbon, duc de Berry, married the eldest daughter the Francisco I, king of the two Sicilies, in June 1816 and she bears his son September 29; the infant (initially the duc de Bordeaux, later the comte de Chambord) becomes heir to the throne, but Louis XVIII ends a period of moderate rule, dismisses his prime minister Elie, duc Decazes, manipulates the elections to give ultras control of the Chamber, allows them to dominate the cabinet, and tries to reimpose the authoritarian rule enjoyed by Bourbon kings before the Revolution (see 1824).
The Cato Street conspiracy to murder members of the British cabinet comes to light February 23. The Bow Street Runners established by the late novelist-playwright Henry Fielding in 1848 has uncovered the conspiracy, whose ringleaders will be executed, but London still has no organized police force (see crime, 1829).
Irish independence leader Henry Grattan dies at London June 6 at age 73, having fought for Catholic emancipation since his election to the House of Commons 15 years ago.
A Spanish revolution led by Colonel Rafael Riego forces Ferdinand VII to restore the constitution of 1812, which he does March 7.
A Portuguese revolt begins August 24 at Oporto and reaches Lisbon 5 days later as discontent grows under the regency that rules with British influence while João VI lives in Brazil. General Beresford has gone to Brazil in March in a vain effort to persuade the king to return to Portugual, leaders of the revolution demand a constitution, and when Beresford gets back October 10 the Portuguese do not permit him to land and expel British officers from the army. Brazilian geologist José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva, 57, gave up his position as professor at Coimbra and director of the Lisbon Academy last year to return home and participate in the independence movement (see 1821).
Ferdinand IV of Naples (Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies) promises a constitution July 7 following a revolt instigated by secret societies that include the Carbonaria and supported by the army (see 1816). Austrian intervention will soon nullify the promise.
An act signed at Vienna May 15 confirms the German Confederation established by the Congress of Vienna in mid-June 1815; it reduces the number of German states from more than 300 to just 39, makes Hanover a kingdom that includes East Frisia and Hildesheim, and gives Bavaria the territory extending from Prussia on the Rhine to Alsace, including the city of Mainz. The act establishes a Diet under the presidency of Austria, with an Ordinary Assembly sitting permanently at Frankurt-am-Main plus a General Assembly. Each state is to have autonomy with regard to internal affairs, war between the individual states is forbidden, and no foreign war may be undertaken without the consent of the Confederation.
Former Austrian field marshal Karl Philipp, Fürst zu Schwarzenberg, dies at Leipzig October 15 at age 49, having suffered a stroke 3 years ago.
Austrian police arrest Italian playwright-patriot Silvio Pellico in October on charges of treason (see 1818). Now 31, he will be sentenced to death in 1822, the sentence will be commuted to life imprisonment, and he will be confined for 8 years in prisons at Milan, Venice, and Brunn (where the Hapsburgs use the Spielberg fortress as a political prison) (see Nonfiction, 1832).
The Congress of Troppau opens in Silesia in October with Austria's Franz I, Russia's Aleksandr I, and Prussia's Wilhelm III in attendance along with their foreign ministers (including Prince von Metternich) and observers from Britain and France, although they have been excluded from the talks. The Troppeau protocol signed November 19 declares the signatories' intention to take collective action against revolution and they adopt another protocol asserting that they will exclude states that have had revolutions from the European alliance and will not recognize their new regimes. The emperor, czar, and king invite the king of the Two Sicilies to attend a congress next year at Laibach where the terms of intervention in Naples will be discussed, but British and French refusal to accept the protocol weakens the Quintuple Alliance (see 1821).
Egypt's Ottoman viceroy (vizier) Muhammad Ali Pasha sends an army to the Sudan in July under the command of his son Ismail with orders to conquer the country, which is rich in gold and slaves. Ismail will obtain the surrender of the Funji and the sultan of Darfur next year, the Nilotic Sudan from Nubia to the Ethiopian foothills will become part of Muhammad Ali's growing empire, as will the territory from the Atbarah River to Darfur.
Vietnam's emperor Gia Long dies at his native Hue January 25 (or February 3) at age 57 after an 18-year reign that has established the Nguyen dynasty. He has made Cambodia a vassal state, made significant legal and monetary reforms, repaired the old Mandarin Road, established an efficient postal service, permitted French missionaries to preach Christianity (which he himself disliked; see de Rhodes, 1630), but inaugurated a policy of isolation from European powers and insulation from Western technological skills. He is succeeded by Nguyen Phuoc Chi Dam, 27, his fourth son by his favorite concubine, whom he has chosen because of the young man's outspoken criticism of Europeans and who will reign until early 1841 as the emperor Minh Mang. The new emperor makes his father's key adviser Le Van Duyet governor of Gia Dinh province to get him out of the way.
China's unpopular Qing (Ch'ing, or Manchu) emperor Jiaqing (Chia-ching) dies at Rehe (Jeho) in Hopeh Province September 2 at age 59 after a weak 24-year reign in which he has suppressed revolts by impoverishing the provinces of Hupei, Shenxi, and Sichuan (Szechuan). Jiaqing is succeeded by his 37-year-old son Daoguang (Taokuang), who will reign until 1850 but have no more success than his father at reducing corruption and stemming the decline of the government.
Argentine military leader Manuel Belgrano dies at his native Buenos Aires June 20 at age 50.
The northern Haitian king Henri I (Henri Christophe) suffers a paralytic stroke in August (see 1811). News of his condition precipitates revolts, he cannot suppress them, he shoots himself at his Sans Souci palace October 8 at age 53, and the Haitian republic takes over his kingdom.
Maine enters the Union as the 23rd state under terms of the Missouri Compromise adopted by Congress March 3 (see Missouri, 1821).
U.S. Navy officer James Barron, now 51, accuses Stephen Decatur of leading a conspiracy against him and challenges him to a duel. Decatur is killed at Bladensburg, Maryland, March 22 at age 41, and Barron badly wounded. Fellow officers will ostracize Barron for the rest of his life.
President Monroe wins reelection with 231 electoral votes out of 232. One vote is cast for John Quincy Adams by an elector who either opposes the Virginia dynasty of presidents, wants to register a symbolic protest against the constitutional three-fifths rule that enables the Southern states to maintain their lead in the Electoral College, or simply holds the conviction that only George Washington should have the honor of unanimous election.
The American Colonization Society ship Elizabeth sets sail from New York in January with three white ACS agents and 88 emigrants (see 1816). Congress appropriated $100,000 last year to finance the Society, its ship lands at Freetown, Sierra Leone, and she then sails south to the Grain Coast, arriving in a desolate, swamp-ridden region where all three agents and 22 of the emigrants die of yellow fever within 3 weeks while trying to establish a settlement, and the survivors return to Sierra Leone to await the arrival of another ship (see 1821).
The Missouri Compromise adopted by Congress March 3 permits entry of Missouri into the Union as a slave state in exchange for Maine's entry as a free state, but only on condition that slavery be abolished in the rest of the Louisiana Purchase territory.
The slave population of Jamaica in the West Indies reaches 340,000. Some 800,000 have been imported since 1690, but adult males have far outnumbered adult females and infant mortality among slaves on the sugar estates has been 500 per 1,000 live births.
English Quaker minister Elizabeth Gurney marries chocolate heir Joseph Fry at age 40 and works to improve prison conditions. Elizabeth Fry will continue her philanthropic efforts until her death in 1845.
Indianapolis is founded on the White River in Indiana. Its name combines the Greek word for city (polis) with the name of the state.
Dutch-dominated South Africa gets its first large-scale British settlement in July. The Albany settlers landed 4,000 strong by the British government occupy a place that will be called Grahamstown in the eastern coastal region; an autocratic British governor will rule the colonists from Grahamstown until 1825 (see 1826).
The Royal Navy brig H.M.S. Williams attempts to penetrate south of the Antarctic Circle but is stopped February 23 by ice off the coast of northeastern Graham Land (soon to be called Palmer Land). Pack ice also stops the Russian ship Vostok just south of the Sandwich Islands (see Weddell, 1822).
Edward Bransfield of the Royal Navy surveys New South Shetland in Antarctica and proceeds as far south as 64° 30'.
Stonington, Connecticut, sealer Nathaniel Brown Palmer, 21, discovers the mainland of the Antarctic continent in November (see Cook, 1773). Captain Benjamin Pendleton, 32, of Stonington has taken five vessels to the South Shetland Islands, and he sends Palmer to search for new seal rookeries. Palmer has read about the discoveries made by fellow Stonington sea captain Edmund Fanning (see 1798), and from his 40-ton sloop Hero he sights an island about 2,500 feet long, 1,000 feet wide, that will be called Stonington; the mountainous archipelago south of 64° 30' will be called Palmer Peninsula. Palmer proceeds to Marguerite Bay at 68° south latitude beyond the Antarctic Circle (see Bellingshausen, 1821).
Explorer-fur trader Sir Alexander Mackenzie dies on his Scottish estate outside Pitlochry, Perth, March 11 at age 64 (approximate); Red River Settlement founder Thomas Douglas, 5th earl of Selkirk, at Pau, France, April 8 at age 48, having depleted his fortune supporting the Canadian settlement; explorer-fur trader Manuel Lisa dies at St. Louis August 12 at age 47; explorer-frontiersman Daniel Boone in St. Charles County, Missouri, September 26 at age 85.
New Hampshire-born army officer Stephen H. (Harriman) Long, 36, commands an exploring expedition into the Rocky Mountains and gives his name to the 14,255-foot Long's Peak.
Connecticut-born Missouri entrepreneur Moses Austin, 59, applies in December to Mexican authorities at San Antonio in Mexico's Tejas province for a permit to establish 300 families in the province. Austin made a fortune mining lead with slave labor in the Missouri Territory, helped organize the Bank of St. Louis 4 years ago, but has been wiped out by the bank's failure and plans to charge colonists small fees for permission to settle on his Mexican land grant (see 1821).
Russian prospectors discover rich deposits of platinum in the Ural Mountains.
A new Chinese edict against opium importation stiffens the 1799 edict, making it a capital offense for any Chinese found in possession of the drug (see 1818), but trade in opium continues as American and British dealers find ways to meet the growing demand for the narcotic (see Russell, 1824; Jardine, Matheson, 1832).
Newport, Rhode Island, merchant David W. C. (Washington Cincinnatus) Olyphant, 31, goes to Guangzhou (Canton) as agent for New York merchant Thomas H. Smith. He will return to New York in 1823, remain until 1826, go back to China in 1826, and after Smith's spectacular failure in the late 1820s go into partnership with Charles Nicolas Talbot under the name Talbot, Olyphant & Co., eschewing the opium trade.
The Nantucket whaling ship Globe returns home in May under the command of Captain George Washington Gardner with more than 2,000 barrels of oil, having gone more than 1,000 miles off the coast of Peru and found what will be called the Offshore Ground—the mating area of the Pacific Ocean's sperm whale population. The price of whale oil has reached an all-time high amidst fears that the supply was exhausted, Gardner's arrival with so much oil lays those fears to rest, but a bull male sperm whale estimated to be 85 feet long and 80 tons in weight rams the 87-foot, 238-ton Nantucket whaling ship Essex November 20 more than 1,500 nautical miles west of the Galápagos Islands in the Pacific, rams her a second time, and sinks her, but not before her captain and his 19-man crew have managed to load a supply of fresh water and hardtack into her three functioning whaleboats, which they rig with masts and sails to begin a 1,400-mile voyage to safety. Fearing to land in the Marquesa Islands lest they be eaten by cannibals, the men head for the distant coast of South America and resort to cannibalism themselves (the first four to be eaten are blacks). The ship's first mate and two crewmen will be picked up close to death in February of next year by the British merchantman Indian, the Nantucket whaleship Dauphin will find the captain and another crewman in similar condition 5 days later, and the trading vessel Surry in April will find three Essex crewmen who have been starving on tiny Henderson Island since late December. Sperm oil remains the world's major lubricant and lamp fuel, and whalers continue to search the seas for prey.
Connecticut architect Ithiel Town, now 36, obtains a patent for a truss bridge (see first Vermont covered bridge, 1824).
The first modern concrete to be produced in America advances construction of the Erie Canal. Oneida, New York-born engineer Canvass White, 30, patents the hydraulic use of cement made from "hydraulic lime" found in New York's Madison, Cayuga, and Onondaga counties (see technology [portland cement], 1824).
Regent's Canal opens at London August 1 after a decade of construction to link the Grand Junction Canal's Paddington branch around the city to Limehouse. Work began in 1812 but was interrupted when funds were embezzled: the eight-and-a-half-mile waterway has cost £772,000 (twice the original estimate), has two tunnels, 12 locks, and in its first year carries 120,000 tons of cargo.
English businessman Thomas Hancock, 34, rents a factory in Goswell Road, London, and installs a device he has invented to work raw rubber (see Fresneau, 1763). His "pickle" can soften rubber by shearing it between two rotors, but the substance remains a curiosity with little practical value since it becomes stiff in cold weather and turns into a gooey mess when the weather is warm (see Goodyear, 1839; Macintosh, 1823).
French mathematician-physicist André-Marie Ampère, 45, discovers the left-hand and right-hand rules of the magnetic field surrounding a wire that carries electric current. Other French scientists have dismissed last year's studies by Hans Christian Oersted, but Ampère (whose father was guillotined during the Revolution) repeats the Dane's experiments and reports that two current-carrying wires exercise a reciprocal action upon each other. (The unit of measurement of an electric current's intensity will be named the ampere; see Ohm, 1827).
French physicist (Dominique-) François (-Jean) Arago, 34, elaborates on work by the Danish physicist Orsted and shows that passing an electric current through a cylindrical spiral of copper wire causes it to attract iron filings as if it were a magnet and that the filings fall off when the current is turned off (see Faraday, 1821).
The American Journal of Science and Arts publishes a note by one Nathan Smith making reference to fossil bones discovered 2 years ago by one Solomon Ellsworth Jr. while digging a well at his homestead just east of the Connecticut River at Windsor. The bones are thought to be human and it will be some years before they are identified as those of the prehistoric reptile Anchisaurus (see 1800; Buckland, 1824).
Naturalist-explorer Sir Joseph Banks dies at Isleworth, London, June 19 at age 77, having served as president of the Royal Society since 1778; physicist Alexis-Therese Petit dies at Paris June 21 at age 30, having helped to enunciate the law that elements in the solid state have nearly the same heat.
A cholera epidemic begins to kill thousands in China and the Philippine Islands (see 1819; 1823).
The U.S. Pharmaeopoeia established by New York physician Lyman Spalding, 45, is a government-approved list of medical drugs with their formulas, methods for preparing medicines, and requirements and tests for purity.
Chemists Pierre-Joseph Pelletier and Joseph-Bienaimé Caventou at Paris discover quinine sulfate, an alkaloid drug that is effective against malaria (see 1642; chlorophyll, 1817). They also develop compounds of the alkaloid drugs brucine, cinchonine, colchicine, strychnine, and veratrine, some of which quickly find uses in medicine; their findings begin a move toward the use of natural compounds found in nature and synthetic compounds formulated by chemists in place of crude plant extracts.
Edinburgh surgeon John Young succeeds in producing 56 pounds of raw opium per acre, far surpassing the 21 pounds produced by Thomas Jones 20 years ago and harvesting also a splendid crop of new potatoes, which he has planted between the rows of poppy plants to protect the young stems in harsh weather.
Spain's Ferdinand VII ends the Inquisition begun by Castile's Isabella in 1477. He acts in response to the revolution, which will have effects in Latin America (see 1821).
The 10-year-old American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions sends missionaries to the Sandwich Islands for the first time. The board will ship a mission house piece by piece next year to Honolulu, where it will be reconstructed, and in the next 28 years it will dispatch more than 80 missionaries to the islands, where they will introduce Christianity, printing presses, and Western education (see 1824).
The Providence Journal has its beginnings in the semiweekly Manufacturers' and Farmers' Journal, Providence and Pawtucket Advertiser that begins publication January 3 at the Rhode Island capital. It will become the Providence Daily Journal beginning July 21, 1829, and survive into the 21st century as America's oldest major daily of general circulation in continuous publication.
Nonfiction: Lacon, or Many Things in Few Words Addressed to Those Who Think by English clergyman-wine merchant-sportsman Charles Caleb Colton, 40, who writes, "Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery."
Metaphysician Thomas Brown dies at Brompton outside London April 2 at age 42.
Fiction: The Monastery and The Abbot by Walter Scott, who is made a baronet by Britain's new king George IV; Melmouth the Wanderer by Charles R. Maturin; The Sketch Book by Geoffrey Crayon (Washington Irving) contains "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow." "History," writes Irving, "fades into fable; fact becomes clouded with doubt and controversy; the inscription molders from the tablet; the statue falls from the pedestal. Columns, arches, pyramids, what are they but heaps of sand; and their epitaphs, but characters written in the dust?"
Poetry: Ruslan and Ludmilla by Russian poet Aleksandr (Sergeyevich) Pushkin, 21, a short, swarthy man whose work contains some revolutionary statements that cause him to be exiled to Bessarabia; "La Belle Dame Sans Merci" and "Ode on a Grecian Urn" by John Keats, who writes in his "Ode," "Beauty is truth, truth beauty—that is all/ Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know"; "Prometheus Unbound" by Percy Bysshe Shelley, whose "Ode" contains the line, "If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?"; Poems Descriptive of Rural Life and Scenery by John Clare, a Northamptonshire Peasant by a 27-year-old flail thresher's son who has had little formal education but whose work sells 3,000 copies and goes back to press three times by year's end; Meditations Poétiques by French poet Alphonse Marie Louis de Prat de Lamartine, 30, who celebrates his deceased love Mme. Julie Charles, marries Elizabeth Birch, and enters the diplomatic service to begin 10 years in Italy during which he will publish several other books of poetry; On the Temple Pyramid of Cholula by Cuban poet José Maria Heredia, 16.
Painting: Saturn Devouring His Children and Self-Portrait with Doctor Arrieta by Francisco de Goya; Dedham Lock and Mill, Stratford Mill, and Harwich Lighthouse by John Constable; The Book of Job in the Old Testament is published with illustrations by William Blake; The Court of Death by Rembrandt Peale, who exhibits the work throughout America and earns upwards of $8,000 within a year. Benjamin West dies at London March 11 at age 81.
Sculpture: The Lion of Lucerne by Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen, 52.
The Venus de Milo (Aphrodite of Milos) turns up on the Aegean island of Milos, where a Greek peasant named Yorgos dislodges a boulder and finds an underground chamber containing the armless marble figure of the 2nd century. French navigator Jules-Sébastien-César Dumont d'Urville, 30, is on a charting tour of the eastern Mediterranean and is instrumental in obtaining the sculpture for the Louvre Museum.
Theater: The Bear and the Pasha (L'ours et le Pacha) by French vaudeville writer (Augustin) Eugène Scribe, 28, with Xavier Saintine 2/10 at the Théâtre des Variétés, Paris. Scribe has been writing vaudeville comedies since 1811 and will write more than 250 plays, opera librettos, and ballets.
Troy, New York, housewife Hannah Montague creates the detachable-collar shirt. Tired of having to provide her husband with a clean white shirt every morning when only the collar of yesterday's shirt is soiled, she simply cuts off the collar, washes it separately, and tacks it back on. Manufacturers will soon produce collar buttons, stiff detachable collars made of various materials will be as much as three inches high, artisans and middle-class men will be able to look as neat as aristocrats, and the collars will begin to break down class barriers (although soft detachable collars will be available for informal wear) (see Van Heusen, 1921).
Bristol's Royal York Crescent is completed.
Architect Benjamin H. Latrobe dies of yellow fever at New Orleans September 3 at age 56 while supervising construction of a waterworks project he has designed for the city.
Congress enacts a land law April 24 providing for the sale of 80 acres of public land at $1.25 per acre in cash, making it possible for a man to buy a farm for $100 with no need for further payments. Thousands of farmers are in debt to the government for public lands on which they have made down payments of only $80 each, and farmers who have paid in full are angry (see 1804).
Nebraska Territory is "a great American desert," says Major Stephen H. Long (see Pike, 1806; Deere, 1837; irrigation, 1848).
Farmers begin using mechanical cultivators, eliminating the need for hand power in weeding corn and giving farmers a tool superior to the crude plows they have used for the purpose (year approximate). The practical seed drill that will be introduced in the next decade or two along with the corn planter will increase the efficiency of farming (see harvester, 1831).
Puerto Rico has 1,545 sugar plantations, up from just seven in 1582, as high prices encourage planting (but see 1840). The island has become a sanctuary for immigrants forced to leave Latin American countries made dangerous by wars of independence.
Salem County, New Jersey, Horticultural Society president Colonel Robert Gibbon Johnson eats a raw tomato in front of a skeptical crowd at the Salem courthouse in September, defying predictions that it will soon kill him. He has experimented with tomatoes in his garden and takes pleasure in eating them raw (see 1861).
French chemist M. H. Braconnot isolates the amino acid glycine from gelatin and then proceeds to isolate leucine from muscle tissue. Amino acids will be found to combine in various ways to form protein, the basic substance of all living tissue (see 1816; Mulder, 1838).
A Treatise on Adulterations of Food and Culinary Poisons, exhibiting the fraudulent sophistications of bread, beer, wine, spirituous liquors, tea, coffee, cream, confectionery, vinegar, mustard, pepper, cheese, olive oil, pickles, and other articles employed in domestic economy and Methods for Detecting them by German-born English chemistry professor Fredrick (originally Carl Friedrich) Accum, 51, names names and enrages the vested interests, forcing Accum to flee to Berlin to avoid public trial. A professor at the Surrey Institution, Accum has shown that pepper is almost invariably adulterated with mustard husks, pea flour, juniper berries, and sweepings from storeroom floors; counterfeit China tea is made from dried thorn leaves colored with poisonous verdigris; pickles are treated with copper to look green; so-called "wine" is sometimes a combination of sloe-juice, vinegar, and sugar of lead (see 1850).
Johnnie Walker Scotch whisky has its beginnings in a grocery, wine, and spirit business opened at Kilmarnock, Scotland, by Ayrshireman John Walker, whose son Alexander will introduce the whisky that will become the world's largest-selling brand (see 1814) law. Like other such Scotch whiskies, Walker's will be aged in oak casks that have previously been used to store sherry, which has soaked into the staves. The barrels (plus a dollop of caramel) give the new, white whisky a golden hue (see 1823).
Beefeater gin has its beginnings in a London distillery founded by James Burroughs.
Champagne producer Nicole-Barbe Clicquot (the "Veuve Clicquot") retires at age 43 to her château, where she will live until her death in 1866 (see 1797).
Of Population by William Godwin is a reply to the ideas of Thomas Malthus.
The U.S. population reaches 9.6 million, with some 83 percent of gainfully employed Americans engaged in agriculture. Between 2.5 million and 3 million live west of the Alleghenies, up from 1 million in 1801. Pittsburgh has a population of 7,248. Charleston, South Carolina, is the third-largest U.S. city, with a population of 19,376 whites and 57,221 slaves. The country will receive on average some 35,000 Irish immigrants per year for the next two decades (see 1846; 1851).
1811 1812 1813 1814 1815 1816 1817 1818 1819 1820
