1825
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The king of the Two Sicilies Ferdinand I (Ferdinand IV of Naples) dies suddenly at his native Naples January 4 at age 73 after a twice-interrupted reign of suppression that was supported by spies and informers and by his late wife, Maria Carolina. Ferdinand is succeeded by his 47-year-old son, who will reign until 1830 as Francesco I, becoming even more reactionary than Ferdinand despite previous avowals of liberal ideas.
Greece's war of independence continues with a renewal of the siege of Missolonghi by Ottoman forces under Mustapha Mohammad Reshid, 23, who have invaded Greece from the North (see 1824). Admiral Konstantinos Kanáris tries to burn the fleet of the Egyptian viceroy Muhammad Ali at Alexandria in August, but a contrary wind thwarts his plan at the last moment. Ali's forces land in the Morea, and they subdue the peninsula under the leadership of the viceroy's son lbrahim (see 1827).
Bavaria's first king Maximilian I dies at Numphenburg outside Munich October 13 at age 69 after a 19-year reign in which a bicameral legislature has made his realm one of the most liberal German states. Maximilian is succeeded by his 39-year-old son, a well-educated German nationalist who was largely responsible for the constitution adopted in 1818 and will reign until his abdication in 1848 as Ludwig I.
Former Secretary of State John Quincy Adams wins election as U.S. president February 9 in the House of Representatives, where Kentucky congressman Henry Clay, 47, controls the deciding block of votes (see 1824). Andrew Jackson won more electoral votes than Adams last year, Clay chooses Adams over Jackson as the lesser of two evils and is named secretary of state, but Southern slave owners continue to control Congress and the new president's cabinet.
Vice President Daniel D. Tompkins leaves office March 4 and dies at his Staten Island, New York, home June 11 at age 50; former diplomat, legislator, South Carolina governor, and presidential candidate Charles C. Pinckney dies at his native Charleston August 16 at age 79. U.S. Navy commodore Thomas MacDonough receives news in the Mediterranean that his wife, Lucy Ann, has died; his own tuberculosis worsens, his weight drops to 60 pounds, he is carried from the U.S.S. Constitution to the merchantman Edwin for the voyage home but dies at sea November 10 at age 41; Continental Army veteran and War of 1812 general William Hull dies at Newton, Massachusetts, November 29 at age 72; former U.S. general James Wilkinson at Mexico City December 28 at age 68, having sought a land grant in Texas.
Hawaii's Kamehameha III becomes king at age 12 upon news of his older brother's death last year in England. Kaahumanu, widow of Kamehameha I, will rule as regent until her death in 1832, the new king will be crowned the following year, and he will reign until 1854.
The Republica de Bolivia (the republic of Bolívar) is proclaimed an independent nation August 6 by a congress at Chuquisaca in upper Peru (see 1809). The congress has been convened in the Andes by the hero of last year's Battle of Ayacucho, José de Sucre, and Bolivia becomes the last Spanish colony in South America to achieve independence (see 1826).
Brazil gains independence from Portugal August 29 with help from former Royal Navy commander Thomas Cochrane, now 49, who transferred his services from Chile to Brazil 2 years ago (see 1822; Cochrane, 1818). Cochrane returns to Europe, offers his services to the Greeks, but will resign in 1828 after failing to persuade Athens to let him command a steamship in battle (see Hastings, 1824; 1827). Portugal recognizes Brazilian independence under her emperor Pedro I.
Uruguayans revolt against Brazil with help from Argentina, which hopes to annex the country and begins a war with Brazil to acquire also the Banda Oriental (see 1820). Buenos Aires gives support to Juan Antonio Lavalleja, 41, a former officer of the exiled José Gervasio Artigas, and the Trinta y Tres Orientales ("33 orientales") who include Montivideo-born Manuel Ceferino Oribe, 31, and will be remembered in Uruguayan history as the "Immortal 33." They cross the Rio de la Plata with Lavalleja to free their homeland, Uruguay becomes independent of Brazil August 25, but Brazil goes to war with Argentina 3½ months later over the question of Uruguay (see 1828).
Haiti's president Jean-Pierre Boyer negotiates a treaty with France, which agrees to recognize Haitian independence in return for an indemnity of 150 million francs to compensate for the murders of French plantation owners during the wars of independence at the turn of the century (see 1822). The Haitian people are impoverished, Boyer's government is corrupt, and raising 150 million francs will prove quite impossible (see 1843).
Russia's Aleksandr I Pavlovich dies in agony at Taganrog in the Crimea December 13 at age 47 either of typhus or from eating poisonous mushrooms. Dead after a 24-year reign, the czar is succeeded by his 21-year-old brother, who married a daughter of Prussia's Friedrich Wilhelm III 8 years ago and who will reign oppressively until 1855 as Nicholas I.
A Decembrist uprising of young Russian aristocrat army officers begins December 14 at St. Petersburg. Sergei Petrovich Trubetskoy, 35, has been declared the Decembrist leader December 23, he and his colleagues hope to establish a constitutional regime, but Trubetskoy fails to appear. The new czar had hoped to avoid violence, but when the rebel troops in the city's Senate Square refuse to listen, Nicholas orders a cavalry charge to clear the square. Improperly shod, the horses of the cavalrymen slip and fall on the icy cobblestones, but the rising is ill-planned and quickly suppressed. Trubetskoy is arrested and sentenced to death, his sentence will be commuted to hard labor for life, and he will be freed under a general amnesty in 1856.
Creek tribesmen in Georgia repudiate a February 12 treaty at Indian Springs in which their leaders have ceded all Creek lands in Georgia to the United States and have promised to leave for the West by September 1 of next year (see 1826).
Fanny Wright publishes a pamphlet under the title "A Plan for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery in the United States Without Danger of Loss to the Citizens of the South," urging Congress to set aside large tracts of public land for emancipated slaves. In December she purchases 640 acres near Chicasaw Bluffs (later Memphis), Tennessee, and establishes the Nashoba (Chickasaw for wolf) community with a Scottish plantation overseer (see 1828).
Some 200 Boston rioters in mid-July tear down the infamous Beehive brothel in the North End. City authorities have turned a deaf ear to demands that it be torn down; the section is rife with dance halls, saloons, and other brothels. Mayor Josiah Quincy has cracked down on such establishments in the West End since his election in 1823 but not in the North End; he urges the men to desist, they riot again in an excess of religious fervor and moral indignation, and although Quincy and the Board of Aldermen offer a reward for information about the rioters only 15 men are brought to trial; seven receive jail sentences of 1 to 3 months each.
Akron, Ohio, is founded by General Simon Perkins, who served in the area during the War of 1812 and has returned to the region south of Lake Erie to acquire vast tracts of wilderness land. Akron is Greek for high point, but the town site is only 395 feet above Lake Erie.
Chicago (Fort Dearborn) begins to grow as the new Erie Canal increases its importance (see 1803). The fort has a garrison of 70 (see 1830).
Omaha has its beginnings in a trading post established on the Missouri River. Fur trader Pierre Cabanne opens the post in a part of the Louisiana Territory that will later be called Nebraska (see 1854).
Quebec-born Hudson's Bay fur trader Peter Skene Ogden, 31, reaches a river in what later will be Utah and that later will bear his name. Known to other traders as "Monsieur Pete," he speaks several Native American languages as well as French and English. In the next few years Ogden will explore southern Oregon and northeastern California, discover the Humboldt River in northern Nevada, and make the first penetration by a white man into the eastern face of the Sierra Nevada, discovering what will be called Carson and Owens Lakes (see Whitman massacre, 1847).
Vancouver, Washington, has its beginnings in Fort Vancouver, erected by Quebec-born fur trader John McLoughlin, 41, of the Hudson's Bay Company. "Dr. McLoughlin's" outpost will be the wilderness metropolis of the Oregon country and the only white settlement in the region until 1834, controlling trade with the natives and frustrating efforts by U.S. traders to break the British monopoly.
Scottish explorer (Alexander) Gordon Laing, 32, explores the Niger basin via Tripoli on orders from the British Admiralty's second secretary Sir John Barrow. A veteran of the war with the Ashanti, Laing returned home last year with news of the death in action of Sir Charles M'Carthy. Laing leaves Tripoli in July, crosses the desert of Tuat, and heads for the ancient city of Timbuktu (but see 1826).
Scottish social reformer Robert Dale Owen, 24, accompanies his father to the New Harmony community in Indiana that Robert Owen purchased last year. After a visit to Britain late in 1827 the son will return to America and remain there, and although New Harmony will not survive beyond 1828 it will be the first of many American communes.
A French law of indemnity enacted in April compensates the country's nobility for losses of lands during the French Revolution. Compensation is at the expense of government bondholders, who are mostly members of the upper bourgeoisie.
U.S. agitation for a 10-hour day begins April 27 with a great strike by 600 Boston carpenters. Master carpenters denounce the strike, warning of the "unhappy influence" of change on apprentices "by seducing them from that course of industry" and of "the . . . many temptations and improvident practices" from which journeymen are safe so long as they work from sunrise to dusk (see 1831).
Parliament enacts a law July 16 permitting British workers to combine in order to secure regulation of wages and hours (see 1824). An effort to reimpose the Combination Acts of 1799 and 1800 fails, but the new law includes a provision that prohibits use of violence or threats of violence, it effectively denies the right to strike, and it introduces summary methods of conviction.
The Bank of England receives a £10 million loan from the 26-year-old firm N. M. Rothschild & Sons, whose funds save the country's banking system from collapse following the failures of 145 banks.
Daniel Shays of 1786-1787 Shays's Rebellion fame dies at Sparta, New York, September 25 at age 78 (approximate). He has received a federal pension in recent years for his service in the American Revolution.
The New York firm Le Roy, Bayard & McEvers established in 1786 agrees to build the frigate Hope for Greek revolutionary forces; the 9-year-old firm G. G. & S. Howland agrees to build the frigate Liberator. Each ship costs nearly twice the $250,000 estimated, only one reaches the Greeks, and both merchant trading houses come under attack for having perpetrated "a barefaced grab gain" (see 1826).
Pennsylvania ironworks owner Rebecca Lukens, 31, takes over the works on the Brandywine Creek left to her by her late husband, who has just died after winning a Navy contract to make the boiler plate for the U.S.S. Codorus, which is to be the first U.S.-built metal-hull vessel. The job is behind schedule and the business in debt, but although Lukens has a newborn child she rejects her mother's advice and makes up her mind to see the job through. She hires her brother-in-law to manage the workmen, handles all the paperwork herself, sets piece rates, watches costs, and sets prices high enough to yield a profit. The Codorus is completed with plate from her mill, and the ironworks will grow to become Lukens Steel, a major supplier of plate for locomotives, steamboats, and machinery.
Merchant William Gray dies at Boston November 3 at age 75, leaving an estate of more than $1 million.
The New York Stock Board and Exchange trades mostly in securities issued by canal, turnpike, mining, and gaslighting companies (see 1817), and although promoters will soon be promoting shares in fledgling railroad ventures, no shares in industrial corporations will appear until 1831; even on the Boston exchange, which is closer to the nation's manufacturing center, no industrial shares will be traded until 1827. Few will appear on the New York, Philadelphia, or Boston exchange for another 40 years (see NYSE, 1863).
European stock and bond prices drop precipitously in November as a result of poor harvests in the wake of the Napoleonic wars. Many companies go bankrupt.
The British Crown grants the duke of York all coal rights in Nova Scotia not previously granted (see 1785); he immediately transfers the rights to a London jewelry firm to pay off his substantial debts, and the jewelers will soon transfer the leases to the General Mining Association, which will have a virtual monopoly from 1826 to 1857 on the huge coal deposits (see commerce [trade union], 1879).
The Delaware & Hudson Canal Co. is organized January 7 at New York's Tontine Coffee House, where anthracite coal from Pennsylvania is ignited on a grate, having been rafted down the Delaware River (see 1823; energy, 1812). The first $1 million corporation in America, it acquired the rights and privileges last June that were granted in 1823 to Maurice Wurts, its stock is oversubscribed within a few hours (some are sold at banks in Kingston and Goshen), and its directors engage Benjamin Wright as chief engineer; he brings along as his assistant John B. Jervis, who surveys the proposed route of the canal with help from John B. Mills and recommends the plan that will be finally adopted for a 108-mile canal from Rondout on the Hudson River to what soon will be called Honesdale in Pennsylvania's Lackawaxen Valley plus a 16-mile rail line to carry coal from mines at Carbondale to Honesdale. Philip Hone is elected president of the company March 8, and it is reported March 17 that $74,207.50 has been received from the sale of shares (see 1827).
The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal Company is chartered January 11 to build a waterway from the Atlantic to the west (see 1828; Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, 1827).
The Schuylkill Canal opens to connect Philadelphia with Reading, Pennsylvania.
The Erie Canal opens October 26 to link the Great Lakes with the Hudson River and the Atlantic (see 1819). Governor De Witt Clinton greets the first canal boat on the $8 million state-owned canal, which has been dug by hand, is 363 miles long, 40 feet wide, and four feet deep, and has tow paths for the mules that pull barges up and down its length at 1½ miles per hour. The canal boat Seneca Chief arrives at New York November 4 carrying Governor Clinton, distinguished guests, and a barrel of Lake Erie water, having completed the first voyage from Buffalo. The time required to move freight from the Midwest to the Atlantic falls to 8 or 10 days, down from 20 to 30; freight rates drop immediately from $100 per ton to $5, New York City becomes the Atlantic port for the Midwest, and the canal makes boom towns of Buffalo, Rochester, Cleveland, Columbus, Detroit, Chicago, and Syracuse as well as New York, but the canal freezes over in winter and is out of service for weeks and months at a time (see 1836; 1917). The 64-mile Champlain Canal and the shorter Seneca Canal open to supplement the great Erie Canal, providing tow-boat access to Canada via the navigable waters of the big lake and its tributaries.
Colonel John Stevens designs and builds America's first experimental steam-driven locomotive. Now 76, he runs it on a circular track in front of an inn at Hoboken (seeStourbridge Lion, 1829).
England's Stockton and Darlington Railway opens September 27 with the world's first steam locomotive passenger service. Planned as a tramway by industrialist Edward Pease, 58, the new 27-mile rail line is four feet 8½ inches wide and has been built for steam traction with the help of engineer George Stephenson, whose 15-ton locomotive Active pulls a tender, six freight cars, the directors' coach, six passenger coaches, and 14 wagons for workmen (see B&O, 1828).
The world's first wire suspension bridge opens near Lyons, France, where it has been built by engineer Marc Seguin, 39 (see Finley, 1800; Ellet, 1842).
Work begins at London on a tunnel under the Thames to link Rotherhith and Wapping. Engineer Marc Isambard Brunel, now 56, has planned the project, which will run out of funds but will finally be completed in 1842 after a 7-year hiatus and open to traffic in 1843.
Inventor Eli Whitney dies at New Haven January 8 at age 59.
Scots-born inventor Henry Burden, 34, of Troy, New York, obtains a patent for machine to make wrought-iron spikes. He came to America 6 years ago with letters from the U.S. minister at London to Stephen van Rensselaer and others, went to Albany at van Rensselaer's suggestion, invented an improved plow and other agricultural implements for the firm of Townsend & Corning, moved to nearby Troy in 1822 to become superintendent of the small, ill-equipped Troy Iron and Nail Factory, and has built it into one of the largest such factories in the country. Alterations to the machine that he will patent in 1840 will enable it to make hook-headed spikes, it will come into general use for track-laying on all U.S. railroads, and although the Albany Iron Works will contest his claim, Burden will prevail (see 1840).
Pittsburgh inventor John P. (Palmer) Bakewell develops the first commercial glass-pressing machine and receives the first known patent for pressing glass by mechanical means (see food and drink, 1808). Egyptians cast glass in open molds as early as 5 B.C., and glassmakers have recently learned to use a plunger to spread thick, molten glass quickly throughout the mold before it solidifies, but the 17-year-old firm Bakewell, Pears & Company, cofounded by Bakewell's English-born father, Benjamin, received a long visit last year from Deming Jarves of Boston (see 1817), and his invention (designed initially to make glass doorknobs) will bring the price of glass products to within reach of the mass market (see Sandwich glass, 1827).
Mathematician Augustin-Louis Cauchy at Paris announces a basic theorem that will prove fundamental to results in analytic-function theory (see 1816). Now 36, Cauchy 3 years ago established the foundations of the mathematical theory of elasticity.
The astatic galvanometer presented to the Italian Society of Science at Modena in May is based on a concept by André-Marie Ampère. Tuscan physicist Leopoldo Nobili, 38, has built the contrivance, having previously worked with Macedonio Melloni, 27, to develop the thermopile for use as a stable source of electricity for physics experiments.
French scientist Antoine César Becquerel, 37, invents a differential galvanometer for measuring electric resistance more accurately.
German physicist Georg Simon Ohm, 36, at Cologne studies the relationship between current and voltage by connecting wires of different resistance across a voltaic pile; he acts on a colleague's advice, substitutes a thermopile for the voltaic pile, and enjoys better results (see Ohm's Law, 1827).
Chemist Eilhardt Mitscherlich at Berlin discovers that when aelotropic crystals are heated they expand unequally in the direction of dissimilar axes (see 1819; 1826).
"Notice on the Iguanodon, a Newly Discovered Fossil Reptile, from the Sandstone of Tilgate Forest, in Sussex" is published by physician Gideon A. Mantell, whose work on what later will be called a dinosaur fossil is based on several teeth and a legbone that Mantell has discovered in his amateur paleontological work (see 1822; Buckland, 1824). Named for its teeth, the iguanodon provides the first indication that dinosaurs were reptiles; it was evidently an herbivorous creature more than 30 feet in length, standing five feet tall when erect, able to walk on two legs as well as four, weighing four to five tons, and will later be found to have lived in Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous periods (163 to 97.5 million years ago) over a wide area of Europe, North America, and eastern Asia (see 1834; Owen, 1841).
Naturalist Etienne de la Ville-sur-Illon, comte de Lacépède, dies at Epinay-sur-Seine October 6 at age 68.
France makes sacrilege a capital offense, but few people will be guillotined for violating the new law.
Vietnam's emperor Minh Mang bars entry of additional Christian missionaries. Himself a strict Confucian, he believes that Christian doctrine threatens basic principles of Vietnamese religious (and poltical) life, and he has tried to thwart Christian proselytizing by inducing French missionaries to give up their outlying posts and move to Hue on grounds that they need interpreters, conferring mandarin degrees on those who did move. He will hereafter forbid preaching Christian doctrine and have missionaries imprisoned (see 1833).
The American Unitarian Association organized by religious leaders who include notably Newport, Rhode Island-born Boston clergyman and author William Ellery Channing, now 45, will appeal for humanitarianism and tolerance in religion rather than proseletyze for a new creed.
Rutgers College receives that name as the 59-year-old Queen's College at New Brunswick, New Jersey, renames itself to honor local benefactor Henry Rutgers, 80.
Amherst College is chartered at Amherst, Massachusetts, where Congregationalist clergyman-professor Zephaniah Swift Moore began giving lessons in 1821 and continued until his death 2 years ago at age 53.
New York's Columbia College appoints Italian immigrant Lorenzo da Ponte, now 76, in September as its first professor of Italian literature, probably through the influence of his friend Clement Clarke Moore, a Columbia trustee. Da Ponte had a reputation in Europe as a libertine as well as an operatic librettist before he came to the New World in 1805 at age 56.
Nonfiction: Nouveau Christianisme by social theorist Henri de Saint-Simon, now 64, who proclaims a brotherhood of man that he says must accompany the scientific organization of society and industry; The Norman Conquest of England (Conquéte de l'Angleterre par les Normands) by French historian Jacques Nicolas Augustin Thierry, 30; The Spirit of the Age, or Contemporary Portraits by essayist William Hazlitt; "Milton" by English essayist Thomas Babington Macaulay, 24, appears in the Edinburgh Review; Memoirs (Part I) by English courtesan Harriette Wilson (née Dubochet), 39, whose lovers since age 15 have included the earl of Craven, the duke of Argyll, the marquis of Worcester, and the duke of Wellington (who has spurned suggestions that he pay to have the revelations suppressed, snarling, "Publish and be damned!"); "Remarks on Changes Lately Proposed or Adopted in Harvard University" by Boston-born Harvard foreign-language professor George Ticknor, 34; "A Decalogue of Canons for Observation in Practical Life" by Thomas Jefferson, now 81, who writes to orphan Thomas Jefferson Smith, 17, "Never spend your money before you have it" (he has violated that canon most of his life), "Never buy what you do not want because it is cheap; it will be dear to you," "Pride costs us more than hunger, thirst, and cold," "We never repent of having eaten too little," "Nothing is troublesome that we do willingly," "When angry, count ten before you speak; if very angry, an hundred."
Social theorist Henri de Saint-Simon dies at his native Paris May 19 at age 64; clergyman-author Mason Locke Weems at Beaufort, South Carolina, May 23 at age 65, having written fictionalized and distorted biographies of George Washington, Francis Marion, Benjamin Franklin, and William Penn along with religious tracts that condemn murder, gambling, drinking, adultery, and dueling.
Fiction: Tales of the Crusaders, The Betrothed, and The Talisman by Sir Walter Scott.
"Bowdlerizer" Thomas Bowdler dies at Rhydding, Glamorganshire, Wales February 24 at age 70. Expurgator Bowdler's six-volume "bowdlerized" edition of Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire will appear next year; novelist Jean-Paul Richter dies of dropsy at Bayreuth November 14 at age 62.
Poetry: Das Hospiz am Grossen Saint Bernard by German poet Annette von Droste-Hülsoff, 28.
Painting: The Leaping Horse by John Constable; General Lafayette by Samuel F. B. Morse, now 34, who has settled at New York; Peaceable Kingdom by Pennsylvania Quaker preacher-carriagemaker-signpainter Edward Hicks, 45. Before his death in 1849 Hicks will have painted more than 60 variations on the theme taken from Isaiah 11:6; rural scenes by English-born artist-poet Thomas Cole, 24, who has worked as an engraver and portrait painter at Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and Steubenville, Ohio, since 1818, come to New York City, and moves now to a Catskill, New York, house where he founds the Hudson River school of American painting; The Slice of Watermelon by Philadelphia painter Sarah Miriam Peale, 25, whose father, James, paints miniatures and whose uncle, Charles Willson Peale, is famous for his portraits of George Washington. She travels to Washington, D.C., where she does a portrait of the marquis de Lafayette, who is visiting America. Henry Fuseli dies at London April 16 at age 84; Jacques Louis David at Brussels December 29 at age 77.
Theater: King Ottokar's Rise and Fall (König Ottokars glück und ende) by Franz Grillparzer 2/19 at Vienna's Burgtheater; The Mischief of Being Clever (or Wit Works Woe) (Gore ot Uma) by Moscow-born playwright Aleksandr Sergeyevich Griboyedov, 29, in May at St. Petersburg. Written in rhymed iambics, it wittily satirizes the bribe-taking and place-seeking of pompous Moscow society and will henceforth be performed only in censored versions, but although Griboyedov involves himself 7 months later in the Decembrist uprising and will be arrested next year, he will be clever enough to get himself cleared of all charges and gain a political appointment.
Opera: Il Viaggio a Reims 6/19 at Paris, with music by Gioacchino Rossini.
The Bolshoi Ballet adopts that name as Moscow's new Bolshoi Theater takes over the ballet company of the Petrovsky Theater that was established in 1776. Reflecting the influence of Russian folklore, it will develop a more spontaneous style than the traditional styles of St. Petersburg companies.
London's Buckingham Palace is created out of Buckingham House by John Nash. The palace will be the residence of Britain's ruling family beginning in 1837.
London's Belgrave Square is laid out. Belgravia will become an exclusive residential area.
Architect Pierre Charles L'Enfant dies penniless on a friend's Maryland estate June 14 at age 70.
President John Quincy Adams has the 25-year-old White House at Washington, D.C., enlarged by the addition of a south portico.
Scottish botanist David Douglas, 27, discovers a coniferous evergreen in America's Pacific Northwest that will be called the Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia or P. Douglasii). He has been engaged as a collector for the Horticulture Society of London.
A Canadian forest fire burns over a tract of 4 million acres in New Brunswick extending more than 100 miles, destroying several towns, and killing 160.
Boston ice king Frederic Tudor hires Cambridge-born Nathaniel Jarvis Wyeth, 23, as his foreman (see transportation [Tudor], 1805). In the next few years Wyeth will increase productivity immensely by using sawdust between cakes of ice and inventing such things as above-ground ice houses with double walls for insulation (see transportation, 1833; exploration, 1834).
The Physiology of Taste (Physiologie du Goût, or Meditations on Transcendental Gastronomy) by Jean-Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, now 70, is published at his own expense at Paris. "Tell me what you eat and I will tell you what you are," says Brillat-Savarin.
The first organized group of Norwegian immigrants to the United States arrives in October from Stavenger, where 52 emigrants, many of them Quakers fleeing a hostile state Church, boarded the sloop Restauration July 4. A baby has been born aboard ship and the 53 Norwegians who arrive at New York October 9 begin a movement that in the next 100 years will take hundreds of thousands to New York, the Midwest, and the Northwest.
Every Woman's Book: Or, What Is Love? by English physician Richard Carlile is the first book on birth control in Britain. It recommends coitus interruptus (partial or complete withdrawal) for contraception, or use of the sponge. Carlile also recommends that a man wear a baudruche, or "glove."
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