1865
1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870
The American Civil War ends, President Lincoln dies by an assassin's hand, and a 12-year era of Reconstruction begins in the South with state legislatures run by "carpetbaggers" and "scalawags."
Union forces under Connecticut-born Brig. Gen. of Volunters Alfred H. (Howe) Terry, 37, capture Fort Fisher at Wilmington, North Carolina, January 15; Union forces occupy Columbia, South Carolina, February 17, and Charleston falls to a Union fleet February 18.
President Lincoln delivers his second inaugural address March 4, stating that the nation's postwar posture should be "with malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right."
Petersburg, Virginia, surrenders April 3 and Grant takes Richmond the same day with help from local Yankee sympathizer Elizabeth Van Lew, who has brought supplies to imprisoned Union officers and helped many to escape (see 1862). Affecting peculiar dress and behavior in order to divert suspicion, "Crazy Bet" has maintained five relay stations between the Confederate capitol and Grant's headquarters.
Confederate secretary of state Judah P. Benjamin disguises himself as a clergyman and escapes to the West Indies following the fall of Richmond April 3. Now 54, he sails for England, will be admitted to the bar at London next year, and in 1869 will become Queen's Counsel.
The War of the Rebellion ends April 9 with General Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House in Virginia. "Let us have peace," says General Grant. The 4-year Civil War has cost the country 620,000 lives: the Union has lost 360,222 men (110,000 of them in battle), the Confederacy 258,000 (94,000 in battle), with 471,427 wounded on both sides. Men with missing arms and legs are everywhere to be seen, the nation is full of widows and orphans, and marriageable young women have trouble finding husbands.
Confederate secretary of war John C. Breckenridge flees south with other high-ranking officials, escapes to Cuba, and makes his way to England, where he will remain until 1868, when an amnesty proclamation will permit him to return to Lexington, Kentucky.
The end of the Civil War makes it possible for President Lincoln to ship arms and clothing across the border to Mexico, where supporters of exiled President Juárez put them to good use against French forces of the emperor Maximilian (see 1864; 1866).
President Lincoln is shot in Ford's Theater at Washington, D.C., April 14 (Good Friday). Actress Laura Keene recognizes actor John Wilkes Booth, 27, as the assassin and holds the dying president's head in her lap until he is taken from his box at the theater to a house across the street. A son of the late English-born actor Junius Brutus Booth and a brother of the eminent Shakespearean actor Edwin Thomas Booth, young Booth has climbed the stairway to Lincoln's box, shot the president in the head with a .44-caliber Derringer pistol, leapt to the stage crying, "Sic semper tyrannis! [Thus always to tyrants!] The South is avenged!" and escaped, dragging a broken leg. One of his accomplices has tried to kill Secretary of State Seward, who is recovering from a fractured arm and jaw sustained 9 days earlier when he was accidentally thrown from his carriage (the pistol misfired and the stab wounds administered by the would-be assassin were not fatal). Lincoln dies April 15 at age 66; told of the president's death, Secretary of War Stanton takes charge of the government, saying, "Now he belongs to the ages." Police search the boardinghouse of Mrs. Mary E. Jenkins Surratt, 45, and she is arrested April 17 on conspiracy charges in connection with the president's murder. Her son John, a Confederate courier, has met in the house with Booth and others but has evidently distanced himself after learning of Booth's plan. Booth is not found until April 26, when he is either killed by his captors or dies by his own hand. President Lincoln is succeeded by his Democratic vice president Andrew Johnson, now 56, whom he selected as his running mate last year with a view to reconciling North and South.
Former Confederate president Jefferson Davis is captured at dawn May 10 near Irwinville, Georgia, and placed in leg-irons at Fort Monroe, Virginia, where he is confined in a damp casemate. News of his treatment produces a wave of outrage in the North, and he is transferred to more comfortable quarters, but he will be held under guard until May 1867.
Assassin John Wilke Booth's alleged conspirators go on trial beginning May 12; all are found guilty, including Mrs. Surratt, and hanged July 7. Intelligence chief LaFayette C. Baker was in New York when the assassination took place and had no direct responsibility for protecting the president; he is accused of negligence but has directed the pursuit and capture of Booth with such quick results that he is promoted to brigadier general. Baker continues his police and undercover work, discovering a large and lucrative trade in pardons of former Confederate officers and men that extends into the White House. Congress will soon refuse to fund his operations, Baker will resign, and the secret service will be disbanded.
President Johnson announces plans for a Presidential Reconstruction of the former Confederacy May 29, drawing widespread censure for his leniency toward the rebels and widespread relief among Southerners, but while he issues blanket pardons to most he requires officers and plantation owners to write personal letters requesting clemency. A group of radical Republicans headed by Thaddeus Stevens favor enfranchisement for former slaves and a restructuring of Southern society, but hordes of planters descend on Washington to petition the president for pardons; by fall he has granted between 15,000 and 20,000 of them their requests.
Confederate guerilla leader William C. Quantrill dies in a Louisville, Kentucky, prison June 6 at age 27; Union Navy Rear Admiral (ret.) Samuel F. Du Pont at Washington, D.C., June 23 at age 61 (Washington's Du Pont Circle will be named for him); former Texas governor (and two-time Republic of Texas president) Sam Houston dies at Huntsville, Texas, July 26 at age 70 (opposed to secession, he refused to swear allegiance to the Confederacy, and was deposed in March 1861).
Confederate naval officer James I. Waddell prepares to attack San Francisco, learns in August that the war has ended, docks at Liverpool, and remains with his crew in England until an amnesty is granted.
The "carpetbaggers" who move into the South are so called with contempt by Southerners, who say that the newcomers can put all they own in the common hand luggage called carpetbags. Some become state legislators and U.S. congressmen, some are missionaries sent to help the freedmen, who are helped in some cases also by "scalawags"—Southerners who join with the ex-slaves to establish a new order in the South.
Paraguay seizes a small Argentinian river port in April (see 1864); a treaty signed at Buenos Aires May 1 creates a triple alliance (Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay) to oppose the Paraguayan dictator (see 1866).
Peruvian general Mariano Ignacio Prado ousts President Juan Antonio Pezet, who has created a furor by agreeing to Spanish demands for an indemnity (see 1864). Prado obtains support from Bolivia, Chile, and Ecuador, forging an alliance against the Spaniards (see 1866).
Colombia's President Mosquera wins reelection, reassumes dictatorial powers soon thereafter, and will be ousted in 1867.
Spain gives up the Dominican Republic, having occupied the country since 1858, and former president Buenaventura Báez returns from Europe to begin a third term. He will be toppled by a second coup d'état in May of next year but will serve two more terms as he renews efforts to have the United States annex his country, mostly to protect his own business interests (see 1878).
Swedish liberal leader Carl Henrik, Greve Anckarsvärd dies at his native Stockholm January 25 at age 82, having fought for a modern parliamentary system (achieved only this year), open government fiscal policy, free trade, and mass public education; Italian patriot general Manfredo Fanti dies at Florence April 5 at age 57.
The Convention of Badgastein signed by delegates from Prussia and Austria August 20 provides that the Prussian kaiser and Austrian emperor shall have sovereignty over their respective duchies of Schleswig and Holstein that have been seized from Denmark (see 1864; Erfurt Union Parliament, 1850). Both duchies are to be admitted to the Prussian-led customs union (Zollverein), even though Austria is not a member, and although the accord postpones the struggle for hegemony over Germany it will lead to disputes (see 1866).
Britain's prime minister Viscount Palmerston dies at Brocket Hall, Hertfordshire, October 18 at age 80. He is succeeded by Lord John Russell, now, 73, who will resign next June after his reform bill fails.
The king of the Belgians Leopold I dies at Laeken December 10 at age 74 after a 4-year reign that has established the Belgian monarchy. He is succeeded by his 30-year-old son, who will reign until 1909 as Leopold II, expanding Belgian interests (and his own) in the Congo.
Boers in the Orange Free State begin a war with the Basutos that will continue until next year.
Japan's shōgunal regent Keiki Tokugawa sends another expedition to Choshu Province in August with orders to destroy the rebellious feudal fief (see 1864). Shinsaku Takasugi has brought his military units under central control and armed them with Western weapons; Tokugawa fails to gain support from the other great feudal lords, many of whom feel that he has tried to reassert his authority at their expense, and his forces are routed (see 1866).
Bhutan signs a treaty ceding control of her southern passes to the British, who went to war with the Bhutanese last year and have defeated them. The British agree to an annual subsidy to the Bhutanese, who reciprocate by agreeing to accept British mediation in any future disputes with their neighbors (see 1910).
General Sherman issues Field Order 15 at Savannah January 16 setting apart for blacks the islands south of Charleston, abandoned rice fields along rivers for 30 miles from the sea, "and the country bordering the St. Johns River, Florida," with no whites to be allowed on Georgia's offshore islands. New Jersey-born freedman and abolitionist Tunis Campbell, 52, is appointed military governor of five Georgia sea islands and establishes a government on St. Catherine's Island, where he distributes land to other blacks, organizes a bicameral legislature and a supreme court, makes himself president, provides schools, and establishes a militia to maintain order and keep out whites. Congress establishes the Freedmen's Bureau in March to help emancipated slaves. Some 400,000 slaves go free upon cessation of Civil War hostilities, but President Johnson cancels Sherman's Field Order 15 and sends troops to restore to their former owners the lands given by Sherman to former slaves orders restoration of lands on Georgia and South Carolina's Sea Islands to their pre-war owners; Sherman had promised freed slaves 40 acres "of tillable ground" and "a mule" at the urging of Freedmen's Bureau director General Oliver Otis Howard, 34, but the promise has been implemented only on the Sea Islands and Howard receives orders to evict the former slaves from their 40-acre plots.
News that the war is over and the slaves freed reaches Texas June 19 when a U.S. Army ship arrives at Galveston; the state's 250,000 slaves were freed in 1863 by the Emancipation Proclamation but Texans never heard about it. Many will celebrate "Juneteenth" in years to come.
White legislators in Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Texas enact "black code" laws to keep emancipated slaves from taking any work other than field jobs in an effort to restore slavery; more than 2,000 black men, women, and children have been murdered in the South by year's end.
The Ku Klux Klan organized at Pulaski, Tennessee, is a secret social club of young men who hope to recapture the comradeship and excitement of the war. Headed by former Confederate general Nathan Bedford Forrest, its name comes from the Greek "Kuklos" meaning circle. Gen. Forrest is its "Grand Wizard." The group adopts elaborate rituals, and its members soon discover that their curious uniform terrorizes superstitious blacks. A majority of Southern whites will join in the next few years as the KKK tries to return local and state government to white, Democratic Party control, but the Klan will disband in 1869 (see 1915; White Camelia, 1867).
The commandant of the Confederate prison camp at Andersonville, Georgia, is convicted of "murder, in violation of the laws and customs of war" and hanged November 10 in Washington's Old Capitol Prison at the foot of Capitol Hill. More than 12,000 Union prisoners of war died at Andersonville in 14 months, as many as 97 in a single day, but although 30,218 Union prisoners have died in various Confederate prison camps (as compared with 25,976 "rebels" who died in Union prison camps), the trial of Swiss-born Captain Henry Wirz, 42, has been tainted. A priest who traveled up from Savannah to give testimony was stopped by the military judges after a few minutes when it became clear that his testimony would be favorable to the defendant. Wirz has spurned an offer of a pardon if he would testify against Jefferson Davis.
The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution that takes effect December 18 prohibits slavery or any other denial of liberty "without due process of law." It has been ratified by two-thirds of the states, many of whose congressmen were lobbied by the late president Lincoln, but the former Confederate states will enact laws making perpetrators of even petty crimes subject to long prison terms at hard labor, and since they cannot afford to build prisons the states will lease convicts to private contractors who will work the prisoners unmercifully, often keeping them shackled day and night, giving them jobs (such as draining malarial swamps) that free workers will not perform, and subjecting them to conditions of food, housing, and sanitation worse than anything they experienced under slavery, where slaveowners had a financial stake in keeping their human chattels healthy (see Georgia, 1866).
The Colorado River Indian Reservation is established by an act of Congress signed March 3 by President Lincoln; it will ultimately contain 264,250 acres with 225,914 in Arizona's Yuma County and 38,366 in California's San Bernardino and Riverside counties, but the desolate Mojave desert reservation land has an average high of 110° to 113° F. in summer and an average low of 39° in winter.
President Johnson sends officials to Fort Laramie in June to negotiate a treaty with Cheyenne and Sioux leaders for the construction of forts along the Powder River (see Bozeman, 1863). News that a large military party has started for Montana Territory before any treaty has been signed enrages the Oglala Sioux, whose 43-year-old leader Red Cloud (Mahpiua Luta) leads Cheyenne and Sioux resistance to Army engineers who have started to survey and improve the "Bozeman Trail" from Fort Laramie through the tribesmen's traditional hunting grounds. He intercepts the first contingent of construction troops and holds them prisoner for more than 2 weeks, but they then proceed to erect Fort Reno, Fort Phil Kearny, and Fort C. F. Smith to guard settlers from attack (see 1868; Fetterman massacre, 1866).
Jamaican blacks revolt in the Morant Bay area, but the insurrection is quickly suppressed by the governor, Edward J. Eyre, now 40, who orders the execution of 450 natives, has many more flogged, and has 1,000 native homes burned. Eyre was lionized in 1850 for his courage in Australia but his latest action creates widespread indignation and he is censured and dismissed. Representative government in Jamaica has been suspended and will not be restored until 1884.
The Swedish Red Cross is founded at Stockholm, the Norwegian Red Cross at Kristiania (Oslo).
Former British diplomat-explorer Sir Robert H. Schomburgk dies at Schöneberg, outside Berlin, March 11 at age 60.
The Hongkong & Shanghai Bank Co. Ltd. is founded March 3 at 1 Queen's Road, Hong Kong, by Scottish banker Thomas Sutherland, 31, who has come to the British crown colony as local superintendent for the Peninsular & Oriental Steamship Co. He opens a Shanghai office April 3, will open a Yokohama office next year, and will incorporate in December of next year under the name Hongkong and Shanghai Bank Corp.; other Hong Kong-based banks will collapse after disastrous speculations in Shanghai real estate, California gold mining, and other ventures, but Hongkong & Shanghai will prosper by using "sound Scottish banking principles."
President Lincoln signs a bill April 14 (his final act as president) creating the Secret Service, a branch of the Treasury Department whose mission is to combat counterfeiting of U.S. currency (see politics, 1901). Wartime inflation has driven the gold value of the Union greenback to 46¢ and by January has reduced the value of Confederate paper money to $1.70 per $100. The Confederate money becomes worthless, and the greenback will not regain its full value until the end of 1878 (see Supreme Court decisions, 1870; 1871; Greenback Party, 1873). First head of the Secret Service is Civil War veteran William P. Wood, 45, who slipped behind enemy lines on many occasions to gain information before being named commandant of the Capitol Prison at Washington; nearly one third of Union currency is counterfeit, and Wood's order from the Treasury Department July 1 advises him that his chief responsibility will be "detecting and bringing to trial and punishment, persons engaged in counterfeiting treasury notes, bonds, and other securities of the United States." Wood's operatives are initially paid $3 per day and told, "Each man must recognize his service belongs to the government through 24 hours of each day" and "continuing employment in the service will depend upon demonstrated fitness, ability as investigators, and honesty and fidelity in all transactions." Wood will arrest the notorious currency counterfeiter William Brockaway and question him relentlessly for 5 days before obtaining a confession (see 1869).
Cotton remains the leading U.S. export, it is essential to the nation's economy, and although Southern planters sign work agreements with their former slaves, few of them have the means to pay anything for the labor they need to plant and harvest their crops.
Andrew Carnegie enters the steel business with former blacksmith Andrew Klopman (see 1856; 1867).
French journalists Léon Say, 38, and (Marie-Esprit-) Léon Walras, 30, set up a bank for producers' cooperatives with Walras as managing director. Subscribing to the popular belief that cooperatives offer an alternative to revolutionary activity in western Europe, they will start a monthly journal on cooperatives next year; Work (Le Travail) will fail in 1868, as will the bank, but Say and Walras will gain prominence as economists.
Finland's Nokia conglomerate has its beginnings in a pulp mill on the outskirts of Helsinki, distributing wood products (see communications, 1983).
The first safe-deposit vault opens at New York June 5; depositors pay $1.50 per year for each $1,000 stored in the vault.
New York's City Bank obtains a federal charter and becomes National City Bank (see 1812; First National City, 1961).
W. R. Grace & Co. is founded at New York to engage in the South American trade under the leadership of William Russell Grace (see 1890; Grace Line, 1855).
Trader William Becknell dies in Texas April 30 at age 68 (approximate), having pioneered the Santa Fe Trail; fur trader-business magnate Pierre Chouteau dies at St. Louis September 6 at age 76.
The U.S. Treasury issues the first gold certificates November 13 (see Legal Tender Act, 1862).
The New York Stock Exchange opens a new trading floor at 10-12 Broad Street December 9.
Chicago merchant Marshall Field learns that Potter Palmer plans to retire from active work in the store he started in 1852 (see 1861). Field persuades Palmer to sell him an interest, and when Palmer takes in Levi Zeigler Leiter, 31, of Cooley, Wadsworth the three men organize a $600,000 firm under the name Field, Palmer, and Leiter with Field, now 31, taking a $260,000 interest (see 1867).
Au Printemps opens at Paris under the direction of former Bon Marché department head Jules Jaluzot, 31 (see 1852; Louvre, 1855).
Pithole Creek, Pennsylvania, makes headlines in January as oil drillers bring in a gusher there (see 1864). The well is soon pumping 250 barrels of oil per day, and by the end of June four wells at the new town of Pithole are pumping more than 2,000 barrels per day, one-third of all the oil produced in Pennsylvania. Some 3,000 teamsters drive wagonloads of barrels to the riverboats and the railhead (see pipeline, 1866). Drillers, business agents, speculators, and hangers-on pour into town, and within a few months the hamlet has a population of 12,000, with 50 hotels and a 100-seat theater. Producers begin exploding gunpowder deep inside wells to increase their yields, and a glut of oil will soon drive the price to as little as $2.40 per gallon, down from a high of $12 last year. Cleveland oil refiner John D. Rockefeller has prospered in his produce business through the war (see 1863), but his partner Maurice B. Clark has taken exception to Rockefeller's having borrowed $100,000 to expand their oil-refining operation. Rockefeller dissolves the Clark & Rockefeller partnership March 2, sells his share in the produce business to Clark, pays him $72,500 for the Clark interest in Samuel Andrews's 2-year-old oil refinery, and goes into partnership with Andrews, and boosts capacity of the refinery to 505 barrels per day (twice that of any other in the area); by year's end the firm of Rockefeller and Andrews has grossed $1.2 million, but by late next year Cleveland will have some 50 refineries, making it second only to Pittsburgh in that respect, and the pollution that they create will be fouling the air and affecting the taste of local beer and milk (see 1868).
A high vacuum mercury pump created by German chemist Herman Johann Philips Sprengel, 28, will lead to development of the electric light bulb (see Swan, 1878; Edison, 1879; but see also Langmuir, 1912).
Irish-born Central Pacific construction boss James H. (Harvey) Strobridge, 37, places an advertisement in the Sacramento Union January 7 announcing that he has jobs for 5,000 laborers "for constant and permanent work," but although thousands apply few remain satisfied to work for about $3 per day when they might make fortunes in the new Nevada silver mines, so as soon as they have earned a stake most of them quit. Charles Crocker approaches the Chinese Six Companies, an immigration agency named for the six areas of southern China from which most have come, providing advances to newcomers so they can pay for room and board as well as picks, shovels, and other mining supplies (its presidency will change every 2 months to keep any one association or regional clan from gaining too much power and it will continue into the 21st century). It recruits workers, mostly from California but some from China's Guangzhou (Canton) Province, where the Taiping Rebellion has disrupted the economy. Some 9,000 of the 10,000 laborers on the Central Pacific will be Chinese, and more than 500 of them will die building the railroad as they blast holes in cliffs to create terraces on which tracks can be laid through the 7,000-foot-high Donner Pass.
President Lincoln invites Congressman Oakes Ames into his office January 20 and keeps him after midnight, telling him, "If the subsidies provided [for the Union Pacific] are not enough to build the road, ask double and you shall have it. The road must be built." The Union Pacific reaches Kansas City (see 1867).
Cornelius Vanderbilt orders his Hudson River Railroad employees not to connect with the New York Central (see 1864; 1867).
The Union Pacific Railroad reaches Kansas City; construction began at Omaha in 1863 (see 1867).
The Missouri-Kansas-Texas Railroad has its beginnings. The "Katy" will extend from St. Louis via 3,000 miles of track through Missouri to Kansas City, San Antonio, Houston, and Galveston.
General William Mahone, Confederate Army (ret.), returns to railroading after he surrenders at Appomattox. He drove a Norfolk & Petersburg rail line through the Great Dismal Swamp near Norfolk before the outbreak of war in 1861, and he now takes over as president of the Norfolk & Western.
The Southern Pacific Railroad is organized to link San Francisco with San Diego (see 1876).
Inventor George M. Pullman offers the use of his Pioneer sleeping car for the final link of President Lincoln's funeral train from Chicago to Springfield, Illinois. (see 1864). The resulting publicity makes many railroad executives reconsider their objections to Pullman's car, and they begin making modifications in their bridges and station platforms (see 1867).
The 1,700-ton St. Louis-New Orleans sidewheeler steam packet Sultana overloaded with Union soldiers explodes on the Mississippi April 27. Designed to carry only 376 people, including crew, she has taken on a large contingent at Natchez, mostly men released from Confederate prison camps such as Cahaba in Mississippi and Andersonville in Georgia. Some other northbound steamers have left Vicksburg with few passengers and even none at all, chaos and possibly bribery have led to the Sultana being overloaded. She has stopped at Hopefield, Arkansas, to take on coal, and is only a short distance upstream at about 2 o'clock in the morning when three of her boilers explode. Most of her lifeboats are destroyed, some survivors are able to swim or lash together makeshift rafts, but 1,600 of the 2,300 aboard are burned to death or drown.
Shipping magnate Samuel Cunard dies at Kensington, London, April 28 at age 77.
A British Locomotives on Highways Act (Red Flag Act) passed by Parliament requires that a self-propelled (steam-powered) carriage travel at a rate no faster than 6.4 kilometers (3.2 kilometers in towns) and have three attendants—one to steer, one to stoke the engine, and one to walk 50 meters ahead carrying a red flag to signal the driver when to stop (see 1829). Stagecoach interests have obtained passage of the act, and although Parliament will enact new legislation in 1878 eliminating the need for red flags, men will still have to precede the vehicles to warn drivers of horse-drawn coaches and the so-called Red Flag will not be repealed until 1896, stifling further development of steam buses that have overcome many technical problems and are becoming highly successful (see 1896).
The Yale Lock patented by Salisbury, New York-born Shelburne Falls, Massachusetts, mechanical engineer Linus Yale, 44, is a small cylinder lock with a pin tumbler mechanism and a small, flat key. Yale has reinvented the pin-tumbler lock employed in ancient Egypt, using a revolving plug instead of a sliding bolt; light in weight, simple in its design, and difficult to pick, his improved cylinder lock will be produced on automatic machinery (see 1868).
Inventor Samuel C. Lister perfects a machine that uses silk-factory waste to make goods that can compete with virgin silk made from perfect cocoons (see wool-combing machine, 1838). Now 50, Lister has spent 10 years and huge sums of money on his work, the products of his new machine can be sold at many times their production costs, and he will also perfect a velvet loom for making piled fabrics.
Austrian botanist Gregor (originally Johann) Mendel, 43, elucidates natural laws of heredity in a paper read to the Brünn Society for the Study of Natural Science (see Weismann, 1864). Mendel entered an Augustinian order as a monk at age 21 and at 35 began studying the genetics of garden peas, using peas for his experiments because the stigma (free upper lip) of the pea flower's style is usually pollinated by pollen from the same flower, which means that a new plant has in effect one parent and is thus assured of pure traits, e.g., yellow, green, smooth, wrinkled, dwarf, or tall. By preventing such self-pollination, and by pollinating hundreds of pea plants with pollen from other plants, Mendel has established that "in any given pair of contrasting traits, one trait is dominant and the other recessive." Mendel's law states that the first generation of progeny of mixed parents will all be hybrids, but in the second generation only half will be hybrids while one quarter will reflect the true trait of one parent and a second quarter the true trait of the second parent. Mendel's recognition that various dominant or recessive characteristics depend on certain basic units, later to be called genes, will be the basis of improved varieties of plant and animal life in the century to come, but established scientists will not begin to appreciate the significance of his work until the turn of the century (see DNA, 1870; Weismann, 1892; DeVries, 1900).
Chemist F. A. Kekulé von Stradonitz explains the structure of aromatic compounds, setting forth a doctrine of the linking of carbon atoms and originating the ring (closed-chain) theory of the benzene molecule's constitution (see 1858).
"A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field" by physicist James Clerk Maxwell unifies laws of electricity and magnetism (see Maxwell, 1859). Light, he concludes, is an electromagnetic wave, but his theory fails to explain why atoms do not lose all their energy when they radiate light, a question that will remain unresolved until the development of quantum theory (see Planck, 1900).
Botanist Sir William Jackson Hooker dies at Kew, Surrey, August 12 at age 80; mathematician Sir William Rowan Hamilton at his native Dublin September 2 at age 60.
English surgeon Joseph Lister, 38, at Glasgow discovers the value of carbolic acid as an antiseptic in treating compound fractures. A son of the London opticist Joseph Jackson Lister, now 79, he has read of Pasteur's 1861 findings in France and develops a sprayer that creates a carbolic mist, inaugurating the era of antiseptic surgery. Ignaz P. Semmelweiss contracts septicemia in a finger and dies in a mental asylum near Vienna August 13 at age 47 of the very disease he has devoted his career to fighting. He has antagonized his peers by suggesting to them that they have been killing their patients for years, has never used a microscope to examine the bacteria that cause puerperal fever, and has never been able to convince doctors that he was right in insisting that their hands should be washed and their instruments sterilized (see Villemin, 1867; Bergmann, 1886; Johnson & Johnson, 1886).
Cholera strikes Paris in September, the daily death toll reaches 200, and sulfur is burned to combat the "miasma" in the air that is held responsible despite John Snow's observations at London in 1853. Louis Pasteur's infant daughter Camille dies in the epidemic.
The Salvation Army has its beginnings in The Revival Association founded in London's East End Whitechapel section by English evangelist William Booth, 36, and his wife, Catherine (née Mumford), also 36, who have been moved by the plight of the poor. Booth will declare that "the submerged tenth" or "disinherited" live in a much lower standard of comfort "than the London cab horse, unable to buy as much food as [is] given to the worst criminals in our jails." Enduring the taunts of critics, who will beat her, kick her, and pelt her at times with mud, paint, stones, dead cats, and even live coals, Catherine Booth will enlist other women in an evangelical crusade against social evils, including prostitution.
Clergyman-orator Edward Everett dies at Boston January 15 at age 70; Society of the Sacred Heart founder Madeleine-Sophie Barat at Paris May 24 at age 85.
Cornell University is founded at Ithaca, New York, by Andrew Jackson White, 32, a state senator who last year helped codify the state's school laws and create a system of training schools for teachers. White has persuaded Ezra Cornell of Western Union to provide large sums of working capital that will make use of land granted to the state under the Morrill Act of 1862 (see 1868).
Vassar Female College opens at Poughkeepsie, New York, September 20 (see 1861; Holyoke, 1837). It is the first true women's college in America: of its 30 faculty members, 22 are women. Maria Mitchell, who has discovered a comet that bears her name, is professor of astronomy and will remain in that position for 23 years (she was admitted to membership in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 15 years ago, becoming the first female member) (see Smith, 1871).
A school for freed blacks opens in South Carolina's Sea Islands under the direction of educator Martha Schofield, 26, who has organized the enterprise. Most slaveowners have forbidden their slaves to learn how to read or write; only one black in ten is literate.
Mexican authorities shut down the National University of Mexico that dates to 1551. It will not reopen until 1910.
Reuters News Service conveys news of President Lincoln's assassination to Europe a week ahead of the competition (see 1851). Reuters' American agent James McClean hires a tug, overtakes the mailboat bound for Britain, and throws aboard a canister containing his dispatch (see Atlantic Cable, 1866).
The steamship Great Eastern leaves Valentia Harbour, Ireland, July 23 with a new cable designed to replace the one that failed in 1858 (see 1864). Instead of iron wire, it employs "Patent Steel" wire made by James Horsfall of the wire-rope firm Webster and Horsfall, who heat-treats the wire during production (steel will hereafter become standard for armoring cable). Locomotive engineer Daniel Gooch, 49, has won distinction by improving on the work of I. K. Brunel and attracted the eye of Joseph Pender, who has recruited him to work on the cable, but after the ship has paid out 1,186 miles of cable the line breaks, and its end is lost. Undeterred, Pender and Gooch establish a new firm under the name Anglo-American Telegraph Co. and raise an additional £600,000 for another go (see 1866).
An improved rotary press devised by Philadelphia inventor William A. Bullock, 52, draws on a continuous roll of paper and cuts the sheets before they are printed (see 1846). The Hoes in New York will evolve a true web press, but only after U.S. paper manufacturers develop paper strong enough to form a long web that will run over many cylinders without tearing, and only after the perfection of quick-drying inks that will permit presses to print newspapers first and cut them afterward (see 1870; Times of London, 1866).
The San Francisco Examiner begins publication June 12 as the Daily Examiner (see Hearst, 1887).
The San Francisco Chronicle has its beginnings in the free theater program sheet San Francisco Dramatic Chronicle published January 16 by local journalist Charles de Young, 18, and his brother Gustavus (their 16-year-old brother Michel Harry is bookkeeper). They have borrowed a $20 goldpiece from their landlord, used it to buy an old desk, some used type, and newsprint, set up an office in a corner of the landlord's printshop in Clay Street, and put out a four-page paper whose circulation reaches 2,000 within a month. They will drop the word Dramatic in 1868 and make the Chronicle a full-fledged 2¢ newspaper. Charles will be shot dead by the mayor's son in 1880, Michel by a member of the rival Spreckels family in 1884; sympathetic juries will acquit both gunmen.
The Nation begins publication at New York July 12 under the direction of Irish-born journalist E. L. (Edwin Lawrence) Godkin, 34, whose weekly journal of liberal opinion will continue for more than 135 years. Founders include North American Review coeditor Charles Eliot Norton, 37, whose Boston-based publication has given vigorous support to the Union cause in the Civil War. Norton has directed a housing experiment in Boston and is gaining a reputation as an idealist, reformer, and man of letters.
Nonfiction: History of Rationalism by Irish historian William (Edward Hartpole) Lecky, 27, demonstrates the growth of modern scientific thought and rational inquiry since medieval times; Sesame and Lilies by John Ruskin, who has put together a series of lectures he has given at Manchester, not about art but about reading, education, woman's work, and social morals; Cape Cod by the late Henry David Thoreau, who walked around the "great beach" and wrote of Provincetown, with its salt fish stacked up on the wharves "looking like corded wood, maple and yellow birch with the bark left on"; The American Republic by Orestes Brownson, who says that America has "a religious as well as a political destiny," that the national existence is a moral entity, perhaps even a theocratic one, and is based for its validity not on the sovereignty of the people but rather on ethics; Josh Billings:His Sayings by Massachusetts-born humorist Henry Wheeler Shaw, 47, who follows the deliberately bad spelling employed by Cleveland's "Artemus Ward" and takes the part of an unlettered Yankee crackerbarrel philosopher.
French social theorist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon dies at Passy outside Paris January 16 at age 55, having condemned the abuses of private property and formulated the doctrines of philosophical anarchism.
Fiction: Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by English mathematician Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson), 33, who has written his fantasy for the entertainment of Alice Liddell, second daughter of classical scholar Henry George Liddell, 54, dean of Christ Church. Punch cartoonist John Tenniel, 45, has illustrated the book, having been introduced to his friend Carroll by playwright Tom Taylor; Our Mutual Friend by Charles Dickens with illustrations by Marcus Stone: "The question [with Mr. Podsnap] about everything was, would it bring a blush into the cheek of the young person [Podsnap's daughter Georgiana]" (xi); Hard Cash by Charles Reade exposes the ill-treatment of mental patients, especially those in private asylums; The Belton Estate by Anthony Trollope; "Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District" ("Ledi Makbet Mtsenskogo uezda") by Russian short-story writer Nikolai Semyonovich Leskov, 34; "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County" by Mark Twain appears at New York November 18 in the weekly Saturday Press and is soon reprinted all over the country.
Elizabeth Gaskell dies suddenly in Hampshire November 12 at age 55 while her final novel Wives and Daughters is being serialized in Cornhill's Magazine (she has left an outline that permits her publishers to complete it).
Poetry: Drum Taps by Walt Whitman, who has added his poem "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd" as a memorial to the late president. The Department of the Interior sacks Whitman from his clerkship on charges of having included explicit sexual references in his 1855 book Leaves of Grass into which his new book of war poems will be incorporated, the poet finds a now job in the attorney general's office, and he will remain at Washington until he suffers a paralytic stroke in 1873; Atalanta in Calydon by English poet Algernon Charles Swinburne, 28, whose drama in classical form with choruses includes the lines, "When the hounds of spring are on winter's traces,/ The mother of months in meadow or plain/ Fills the shadows and windy places/ With lisp of leaves and ripple of rain"; Chastelard (verse drama) by Swinburne (see politics, 1563); Stances et poemes by Paris-born poet Sully Prudhomme (nom de plume of René François Armand Prudhomme), 26, who has had some of his poems published in Le parnasse contemporain, an influential journal; "The Hand That Rocks the Cradle Is the Hand That Rules the World" by Lexington, Kentucky-born New York lawyer-poet William Ross Wallace, 46, who has gained fame with his Civil War songs "The Liberty Bell" and "Keep Step with the Music of the Union."
Poet Andrés Bello dies at Santiago, Chile, October 15 at age 83. He has been rector of the University of Chile since he founded it in 1842.
Juvenile: Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates by New York author Mary Elizabeth Mapes Dodge, 34.
Painting: Girl with Seagulls, Trouville and Countess Karoly by Gustave Courbet; Self-Portrait by J. A. D. Ingres, now 85; Portrait of Jo, the Beautiful Irishwoman by James A. McNeill Whistler, who has painted his mistress; Faithful Unto Death by Paris-born English painter Edward Poynton, 29, who wins acclaim for his picture of a Roman soldier on guard at Pompeii; Peace and Plenty by George Inness; Bird Catchers and The Veteran in a New Field by Winslow Homer.
The allegorical fresco Apotheosis of Washington by Italian-born Constantino Brumidi, 60, is completed on the ceiling of the Capitol dome at Washington, D.C. (see architecture, 1863). Brumidi came to America in 1852, has been commissioned to create various frescoes, paintings, and statuary for the Capitol, and receives $40,000 for the fresco, in which gods and goddesses intermingle with George Washington and other national heroes above the building's great rotunda.
Theater: Society by Thomas W. Robertson 11/11 at the Prince of Wales's Theatre, London, with Marie (Effie) Wilton, 26, who has purchased the Queen's Theatre in January, renamed it, and began its second season 9/25. The comedy scores such a success that another row of stalls has to be added and the Prince of Wales makes his first visit. Wilton has appeared heretofore only in some Strand Theatre burlesques; Henry Dunbar; or, A Daughter's Tears by Tom Taylor (based on last year's novel by Mary Elizabeth Braddon) 12/9 at London's Royal Olympic Theatre.
Opera: L'Africaine (The African) 4/28 at the Paris Grand Opéra, with music by the late Giacomo Meyerbeer; Tristan und Isolde 6/10 at Munich's Royal Court Theater, with music by Richard Wagner, who was summoned to the court of Bavaria's Ludwig II last year but will soon be expelled because of his improprieties and popular objections to the king's friendship with him (Ludwig will nevertheless remain a lifelong patron of the composer).
Soprano Giuditta Pasta dies at Blevio on Lake Como April 1 at age 66, having retired to her villa on the lake in 1850.
Chicago's Crosby Opera House opens April 20.
Tony Pastor's Opera House opens at New York August 14 in a building at 201 Bowery under the management of actor-clown-comedian-balladeer Antonio Pastor, 28.
Oratorio: The Legend of St. Elizabeth by Franz Liszt 8/15 at Budapest.
First performances: Symphony in B minor (Unfinished) by the late Franz Schubert 12/17 at Vienna.
Popular songs: "Ich Liebe Dich" by Norwegian composer Edvard Hagerup Grieg, 22, lyrics by Hans Christian Andersen, now 60; "Marching Through Georgia" by Henry Clay Work.
A British mountain-climbing party led by London-born artist Edward Whymper, 25, makes the first ascent of the Matterhorn in the Alps July 14; it is Whymper's eighth attempt. Four members of his group fall to their deaths on the descent, and Whymper is spared along with two guides only because the rope attaching them to the others has broken.
English racing's Triple Crown goes to the French-bred horse Gladiateur, which wins the Two Thousand Guineas, the Derby, and the St. Leger.
The U.S. trotter Goldsmith Maid makes money at New Jersey harness tracks for her new owner Alden Goldsmith, who will sell the 8-year-old mare in 1869 for $15,000. She will earn $100,000 in the following 2 years, Harry N. Smith will buy her in 1871 for $32,000 with a view to breeding her, he will race her instead, she will earn another $100,000 for Smith and go undefeated from 1871 to 1874, winning her last race at age 20; her purses will total $364,200, and she will live to age 28.
Boxer Tom Sayers dies at London November 8 at age 39.
The Stetson "ten-gallon" hat is created by Philadelphia hat maker John Batterson Stetson, 35, whose high-crowned "Boss of the Plains" is a modified Mexican sombrero with a four-inch crown, a four-inch brim that can carry 10 "galions" (ribbons), and a leather strap hatband. The $5 hat has a look of importance and is destined for fame on the Western plains (a Stetson made from better materials will sell for $10, one made from pure beaver or nutria felt for $30). Stetson worked for years in his family's hat company until he came down with tuberculosis, went West to seek a cure, joined the gold rush to Pike's Peak in 1863, and has returned home to open his own factory, which is initially a one-man operation producing hand-made hats. He will build a much larger factory on the outskirts of Philadelphia, equip it with all kinds of machinery, and by 1900 will have a payroll of more than 3,000 people, none of them a union member.
Carter's infant wear is introduced by Needham, Massachusetts, entrepreneur William Carter, whose company will grow to be the largest U.S. marketer of baby and toddler apparel (see dropseat union suit, 1907).
Mme. Demorest has 300 women agents selling her paper dress patterns throughout America (see 1860). Her business has grown despite the war and will soon have agents in Europe.
White Owl cigars have their beginnings as cigar maker Frederic Storm joins his brother George in the firm of Stratton & Storm, which will soon open a factory near Little Neck Bay at Bayside, Queens, to produce hand-rolled cigars. They will build a three-story factory in the early 1870s at the northwest corner of what later will be Bell Boulevard and 43rd avenue, with attached houses for the factory workers out back, and will later rename the firm Owl Commercial Co., supposedly because a snowy owl flew into the bedroom of Frederic Storm's Bayside home while he was trying to think up a name for a new brand of cheroots (see 1917).
Armed robbers enter an unoccupied Adams Express rail car on a train en route to Boston from New York July 6 and steal more than $500,000 from company safes in the first recorded U.S. train robbery. Pinkerton National Detective Agency agents soon identify the perpetrators (see 1866).
Boston City Hall is completed to designs by architects Gridley J. Fox Bryan and Arthur Gilman.
New York appropriates another $300,000 for the New York County courthouse under construction north of City Hall (see 1864). Still another $300,000 is soon added, and the slow-moving project will receive another $500,000 next year. Contractors who include plasterer Andrew Garvey, carpenter George S. Miller, and plumber John H. Keyser are submitting inflated bills and kicking back large sums to members of the Tweed Ring, who have no interest in seeing the building completed when it is providing them with such large amounts of money. The cut taken by the Tweed Ring has climbed to 55 percent, up from 10 percent in the beginning, and by next year will 65 percent, but the graft will not come to light for several more years (see 1875; politics, 1868).
Housing construction resumes at New York after a 4-year wartime lapse. Brownstones on Fifth and Madison avenues rent for $320 to $500 per month—twice the prewar level; working-class houses that rented for $40 to $50 per month in 1860 now go for $58 to $83 per month, and the New-York Times reports that would-be tenants "have to go begging to get them for that." The city has 15,309 tenements, and few of them have even tiny air shafts for ventilation (see 1864; 1867); middle-class families live mostly in boarding houses, and those who can afford it have houses of their own, but private indoor toilets remain few and far between.
Vienna's Ringstrasse opens as the city prospers with freedom of trade under the self-government granted by the emperor in 1861 (see 1857). Magnificent public buildings and parks will spring up along the avenue.
Oregon's Mount Hood in the Cascade Range erupts for the last time and becomes extinct.
The New York State legislature creates New York City's first professional fire department to replace the volunteer companies whose ties to Tammany Hall have been related to increasing losses of life and property. The new Metropolitan Fire Department (MFD) is a paid force of 700 men in Manhattan and Brooklyn directed by the Republican-controlled board of commissioners. By early next year steam engines, horses, and a fairly reliable telegraph system will be operating in downtown Manhattan, and efficiency will improve under the direction of General Alexander T. Shaler, who will reorganize the department along military lines, with officer ranks, battalions, discipline, specialization, and trials for disobedience (see 1870).
A new drainage system for London opens after 6 years of work under the supervision of Metropolitan Board of Works chief engineer Joseph W. (William) Bazalgette, 46, who has designed the system. When finally completed 10 years hence it will have 83 miles of intercepting sewers.
Landscape gardener, entrepreneur, and Crystal Palace designer Sir Joseph Paxton dies at Sydenham outside London June 8 at age 64 (or, possibly, 62).
French grape growers near Tarascon, north of the Pyrenees, notice decay in vineyards where they may have experimented with cuttings of U.S. vines resistant to powdery mildew (see 1863; 1866).
Virginia agriculturist Edmund Ruffin dies by his own hand June 18 at his plantation, Redmoor, in Amelia County at age 71 (see 1833). He has been despondent over the defeat of the Confederate cause.
America's Civil War has virtually ended rice cultivation in the Carolinas and Georgia, but rice growing has increased along the Mississippi River in Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas (see 1671; California, 1908).
California's Sacramento Valley increases its wheat production (see 1851). Missouri-born physician-farmer Hugh J. (James) Glenn came west in 1849, now owns thousands of acres in an area 100 miles north of Sacramento, and in 1867 will buy the Rancho Jacinto to expand his holdings (see 1868).
Trading of wheat futures begins at Chicago after years of informal speculation in "to arrive" grains during the Crimean and Civil Wars (see Japan, 1690). Futures trading will enable the farmer to lock in a price for his crop before it is harvested and the millers to lock in the price of the wheat he needs for flour; speculators will buy (and sell) futures in hopes of higher (or lower) actual prices in weeks or months to come, but while the Chicago Board of Trade that began operations in 1848 moves this year into the Chamber of Commerce Building at LaSalle and Washington streets and deals in futures as well as actual commodities, it will not be used for hedging until 1879 (see commerce [Munn], 1871; Liverpool, 1883). New York and New Orleans markets continue to be "spot" markets dealing in actual grain (see 1872).
Wisconsin farmer's son William Wallace "Will" Cargill, 21, buys a railroad ticket to the end of the line and acquires a small interest in a wooden grain elevator at Conover, Iowa. Born on Long Island, young Cargill is the second oldest of four sons of a onetime Scottish sea captain; he will build a network of elevators throughout the Midwest (see 1873).
Cattle disease in Britain raises prices, increasing demand for cheap, fatty American bacon and Australian canned meats (see 1864; 1866).
Chicago's Union Stock Yards open December 25 on a 345-acre tract of reclaimed swampland southwest of the city limits (it will expand in future to cover 475 acres). With the Mississippi virtually shut down by the Civil War, Chicago has succeeded Cincinnati, Louisville, and St. Louis as the nation's meat-packing center. Realizing that the city has doubled its packing capacity in a single year of the war with eight new large packing plants and many small ones to serve the nine railroads that converge on Chicago, entrepreneurs Samuel Waters Allerton, 37, and John B. Sherman have persuaded the railroads to spend $1.5 million for the new Stock Yards, whose pens can hold 10,000 head of cattle and 100,000 hogs at any given time (see 1892; Armour, 1872; Swift, 1877).
General Grant orders that the Confederate Army be issued immediate rations along with fodder for their horses. The retreating Confederates had 350,000 emergency rations stored at Richmond, and Lee ordered them shipped by rail to Amelia Courthouse April 2, but—owing to a failure in communications—he and his men have found no provisions awaiting them there; the famished army of 30,000 to 35,000 men has dwindled by April 9 to scarcely 25,000, all of them hungry.
Abolition of slavery in the United States will have profound effects on Southern agriculture—and on the nutrition of former slaves. It will create a Southern population of sharecroppers, who will relocate too frequently to maintain vegetable gardens as many of them did under slavery. Their diets, as a result, will often be deficient in greens and vegetables. They may pick berries and gather greens in the summertime, and may supplement their diets with the fish they catch and the squirrels and raccoons they shoot, but many will live almost exclusively on bacon, corn pone, corn bread spread with fat and molasses, and coffee sweetened with molasses, and this will have nutritional consequences. Corn and pork are also the staples of settlers living in sod houses and shanties on frontier farms out west, only the more prosperous being able to raise animals other than hogs for their own consumption.
French-born milling engineer Edmund LeCroix revolutionizes flour milling with a small mill that he builds for Alexander Faribault at Northfield, Minnesota, adapting a French machine to develop a middlings purifier that improves the yield of endosperm wheat particles free of bran. "Patent" flour is introduced using a newly patented process for separating bran from granual "middlings" (farina). LeCroix improves on this superior quality flour with a middlings purifier that permits continuous improvement of the flour stream as it moves through the mill. He combines the bolting cloth used for centuries to sift flour for finer granulation with fan-driven air currents used for years to clean wheat.
Poor yeast is responsible for poor quality U.S. bread, says Austrian stillmaster Charles Fleischmann, 31, who visits Cincinnati to attend his sister's wedding. Salt-rising bread is preferred in the North, baking soda hot bread in the South, and what little yeast bakers use is generally "slop" yeast from potato water or from the frothy "barm" at the top of ale vats, but Fleischmann will change that (see 1868).
Royal baking powder has its beginnings at Fort Wayne, Indiana, where a pharmacist mixes baking soda with cream of tartar to produce a powder (see Standard Brands, 1929). Bakers who have no baking powder are advised to beat cake ingredients by hand for at least an hour.
Cans made of thinner steel come into general use; the rim around the top of each can will lead to the invention of the can opener that will permit cans to be opened more easily than with hammer and chisel (see keywind tear strip, 1866).
"The people must live on canned fruits and vegetables," writes a visitor to Virginia Dale, Colorado. "Corn, tomatoes, beans, pine apples, strawberry, cherry and peach, with oysters, and lobsters are the most common," writes Samuel Bowles.
Del Monte Corp. has its beginnings in a California food brokerage firm founded by James K. Armsby, whose company will become Oakland Preserving Co. in 1891, California Packing in 1916, and Del Monte in 1967—the leading U.S. packer of fruits and vegetables (see 1891).
A compression machine built by New Hampshire-born inventor-balloonist Thaddeus Sobieski Coulincourt Lowe, 33, makes ice and thus pioneers mechanical refrigeration. Lowe has been chief of the U.S. Army aeronautic section since 1860 (see energy [water gas], 1873).
Anheuser-Busch has its beginnings at St. Louis, where German-born brewer Adolphus Busch, 26, marries Lily Anheuser and goes into business with her German-born father, Eberhard Anheuser. The youngest of 21 children, Busch served with the Union Army in northern Missouri before entering the brewers' supply business, Anheuser was one of his customers, but his father-in-law has had trouble selling even his small output of 8,000 barrels per year and has offered Busch an interest in his brewery in lieu of paying the bill owed for his supplies (see 1873; Budweiser, 1876).
Hamm's beer is introduced at St. Paul, Minnesota, by German-born brewer Theodore Hamm, 40, who emigrated from Baden in 1854, has worked as a butcher and saloonkeeper, and now opens a brewery.
Great Western champagne is introduced by the Pleasant Valley Wine Co., of Hammondsport, New York (see 1860). It is the state's first sparkling champagne.
Puerto Rico's Don Q rum has its beginnings in a distillery purchased by Spanish-born sugar planter Juan Serrallés, 28, whose father, Sebastián, settled at Ponce early in the century but later returned to his native Catalonia. The younger Serrallés founded the 300-acre Hacienda Mercedita 4 years ago and by 1871 will be producing 1.5 million pounds of sugar, using slaves and free labor to supply his Destileria Serrallés, which will remain under family control into the 21st century.
Bookbinder's Restaurant opens near the Schuylkill River at Philadelphia, where it will be famous for its snapper soup.
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