1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970
President Johnson proclaims his vision of a "Great Society" in his first State of the Union Message January 4 but U.S. bombers pound North Vietnamese targets February 7 and 8, retaliating against a National Liberation Front (NLF) attack on U.S. ground forces in South Vietnam (see 1964). Washington announces a general policy of bombing North Vietnam February 11 and President Johnson says, "The people of South Vietnam have chosen to resist [North Vietnamese aggression]. At their request the United States has taken its place beside them in this struggle."
Gen. Nguyn Cao Ky takes control as premier of South Vietnam in February, with former National Military Academy head Nguyen Van Thieu, 41, as chief of state. Nguyen Khanh is effectively exiled to the United States.
Some 160 U.S. planes bomb North Vietnam March 2, and 3,500 U.S. Marines land at Da Nang March 8 to 9 in the first deployment of U.S. combat troops in Vietnam. A bomb explodes in the U.S. embassy at Saigon March 30. North Vietnamese MiG-21 fighter planes shoot down U.S. jets April 4, a student demonstration in Washington, D.C., April 17 protests the U.S. bombing of North Vietnam, but U.S. planes raid North Vietnam in force April 23.
Australia decides April 29 to send troops to aid South Vietnam.
A "teach-in" broadcast May 15 to more than 100 U.S. colleges opposes the war 9,000 miles away in Vietnam, but Congress authorizes use of ground troops in direct combat June 8 if the South Vietnamese army so requests. The first full-scale combat offensive by U.S. troops begins June 28. Some 125,000 U.S. troops are in Vietnam by July 28 and President Johnson announces a doubling of draft calls. While he asks the UN to help negotiate a peace, U.S. troops engage in their first major battle as an independent force in mid-August and destroy a Viet Cong stronghold near Van Tuong August 19. "The Vietcong are going to collapse within weeks," says President Johnson's National Security Adviser Walt (Whitman) Rostow, 48: "Not months, but weeks."
Antiwar rallies October 15 attract crowds in four U.S. cities. Poet Allen Ginsberg at Berkeley, Calif., introduces the term "flower power" to describe a strategy of friendly cooperation. Oakland police have blocked the Berkeley peace marchers from entering the city and the Hell's Angels motorcycle gang has attacked the marchers, calling them "un-American." Look magazine reveals in November that Washington rejected secret peace talks with North Vietnam arranged in September of last year by UN Secretary General U Thant. The AFL-CIO pledges "unstinting support" for the U.S. Vietnamese war effort December 15.
Former Supreme Court justice and longtime civil-rights advocate Felix Frankfurter dies of a heart attack at Washington, D.C., February 22 at age 82 (he retired in 1962 and was succeeded by former secretary of labor Arthur J. Goldberg, now 56, who resigns reluctantly at President Johnson's request and is appointed U.S. representative to the United Nations).
Former Japanese foreign minister Kenkichi Yoshizawa dies at Tokyo January 5 at age 90; former U.S. diplomat Joseph C. Grew at Manchester, Mass., May 25 at age 84; former Japanese general Otozo Yamada at Tokyo July 18 at age 83 (he was convicted of war crimes by a Soviet court and imprisoned from 1945 to 1956); former South Korean president Synghman Rhee of a stroke at Seoul July 19 at age 90; former Japanese premier Hayato Ikeda at Tokyo August 13 at age 65.
India and Pakistan go to war over Kashmir again in September (see 1949; 1964). Hostilities continue for 17 days until the United Nations Security Council can enforce a cease-fire September 22 (see 1966). Pakistan's president Mohammad Ayub Khan is reelected despite strong opposition from forces united behind Fatima Jinnah, sister of the nation's founding father Mohammed Ali Jinnah (see 1960); he will hold office until 1969.
Philippines president Diosdado Macapagal loses his bid for reelection to Nacionalista Party candidate Ferdinand (Edralin) Marcos, 47, who led a Filipino Army unit against the Japanese in 1942, survived the Bataan Death March and a Japanese prison camp, will make himself virtual dictator, and will remain in power until 1986 (see martial law, 1972).
The Indonesian army defeats a communist takeover attempt in late September (see commerce, 1963). Indonesia has withdrawn from the United Nations January 2 (the first nation to do so). Jakarta has seized U.S. oil company properties and those of Goodyear Tire & Rubber March 19 and seizes all remaining foreign-owned properties April 24. Communists kidnap the army chief of staff and five generals at the end of September, but other generals escape capture and thwart the attempted coup. A general massacre of alleged communists begins October 8, estimates of the dead range up to 400,000, but many of those killed are ethnic Chinese who have lived in Indonesia for centuries, dominate the nation's economy, and are slain simply because they are landlords or creditors. Gen. Thojib N. J. Suharto (or Soeharto), 44, becomes chief of the army staff and will make himself dictator (see 1967).
CIA director John A. McCone resigns April 28 to pursue his business interests, having been excluded by President Johnson from the White House inner circle because of his pessimistic views about Vietnam; he is succeeded by Texas-born Vice Admiral William F. (Francis) Raborn Jr., 55, who will head the agency until next year.
U.S. Marines land in the Dominican Republic April 28 to protect American citizens and prevent an allegedly imminent communist takeover of the Santo Domingo government (see Trujillo, 1961). President Johnson has ordered the invasion despite opposition from senators who include notably J. William Fulbright (D. Mo.). An Inter-American Peace Force from the Organization of American States (OAS) takes over peacekeeping operations beginning May 23, but 20,000 U.S. Marines remain for several months (see Belaguer, 1966).
Former Colombian president Laureano Eleuterio Gómez dies at his native Bogotá July 12 at age 76.
Canada's prime minister Lester B. Pearson persuades Confederation of National Trade Unions president Jean Marchand, 46, to become a candidate for the Liberal Party and help derail the growing Quebec separatist movement; La Presse dismisses its editor-in-chief Gérard Pelletier, 46, for his radical views, and Marchand convinces him and Montreal-born assistant law professor Pierre Elliott Trudeau, 45, to run for office; all three are elected, they serve in Pearson's cabinet, and they will become known as Quebec's "three wise men."
Former British prime minister Sir Winston Churchill dies at London January 24 at age 90 and is buried at St. Martin's Churchyard, Bladon. His widow, Clementine (née Hozier), is named a life peer and given the title Baroness Spencer-Churchill of Chartwell; former Irish Free State president William T. Cosgrove dies at Dublin November 16 at age 85.
Gen. Maxime Weygand dies at Paris January 28 at age 98 from the effects of broken hips suffered in a fall 8 days earlier. President de Gaulle has never forgiven Weygand for advising capitulation to the Germans in 1940 and denies permission for his funeral to be held at St. Louis des Invalides Church so it is held at Weygand's parish church February 2.
Romania's premier Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej dies in March after nearly 13 years in power and is succeeded as head of state by Nicolae Ceausescu, 47, a military man whose formal education has not gone beyond fourth grade but who has been trained at Moscow; he will rule despotically until late 1989.
Hungarian politician Gyula Kallai, now 55, becomes prime minister and will hold the position until 1967, having helped to restore communism after the pro-democracy revolt of 1956.
Turkey's prime minister Inönü resigns in February after less than 4 years in office following a reversal in parliament (see 1963). A new government headed by Suat Hayri Urgüplü rules until October 10, when the new center-right Justice Party wins a majority in the general election and 40-year-old Süleyman Demirel becomes prime minister. A former engineer, Demirel will hold office until 1971.
Former Egyptian king Farouk co1llapses at a Rome restaurant in the Appia Antica and dies of a heart attack March 18 at age 49; Israel's premier Moshe Sharett dies of cancer at Jerusalem July 7 at age 70; former Egyptian premier Mustafa Nahas Pasha of a heart ailment at Cairo August 23 at age 86; former Iraqi premier Rashid Ali al-Geilani in exile at Beirut August 28 at age 73; former Jordanian premier Samir el-Rifel of a heart attack at Amman October 12 at age 66.
Exiled Moroccan revolutionary leader Mehdi Ben Barka, 45, disappears at Paris October 29, rumors circulate that Moroccan minister of the interior Gen. Muhammad Oufkir has hired gangsters to eliminate Ben Barka, a formal French inquiry and trial reveal that Morocco has violated French national sovereignty and that French police and intelligence officers have been involved in the affair, but Morocco ignores an international warrant for Oufkir's arrest (see 1966).
Former Howard University Law School dean Patricia Roberts Harris, 40, goes to Luxembourg as U.S. ambassador. She is the first black woman to attain ambassadorial rank.
Former U.S. ambassador to the United Nations (and two-time presidential candidate) Adlai E. Stevenson collapses outside his London hotel July 14 while walking with his longtime mistress Marietta Peabody Tree, now 48. Stevenson dies of heart failure soon afterward at age 65; Norden bombsight inventor Carl L. Norden at Zürich June 14 at age 85.
Former U.S. Communist Party general secretary Benjamin Gitlow dies of a heart attack at Crompond, N.Y., July 19 at age 73.
Texas voters elect lawyer Barbara (Charline) Jordan, 30, to the State Senate; she becomes that body's first black senator since 1883 (see 1972).
The Gambia gains independence February 18 after nearly 122 years of British colonial rule. The kingdom will become a republic in 1970.
The Maldives in the Indian Ocean gain independence July 26 after 78 years of British colonial rule.
Singapore's prime minister Lee Kuan Yew proclaims de facto independence from the Federation of Malaysia August 9 and Singapore becomes a republic December 22 (see 1963). The largest port in Southeast Asia and one of the world's busiest, the city-state becomes a member of the British Commonwealth with an authoritarian government headed by Lee, now 42, who will hold office until 1990.
Rhodesia's prime minister Ian Smith visits London in early October and demands immediate independence, Britain refuses unless the Salisbury government first agrees to expand representation of native Africans in the government with a view to eventual majority rule (see 1964). Smith declares Rhodesian independence unilaterally November 11 while reaffirming loyalty to the queen, the British governor at Salisbury declares Smith and his government deposed, London calls Smith's declaration illegal and treasonable, and it proclaims economic sanctions against Rhodesia (see 1966).
The UN Security Council calls on all nations November 12 to withhold recognition of the oppressive new Rhodesian regime and refuse it aid. Rhodesian guerrillas sabotage railway lines, destroy crops, kill cattle, and will soon begin murdering white farmers. The Organization of African Unity threatens to break relations with Britain December 5 unless London applies force to suppress Ian Smith's Rhodesian rebellion by December 15.
Guinea severs diplomatic relations with France November 15 after discovering a plot to assassinate Sékou Touré and overthrow his regime.
The Independent Congo Republic has a bloodless coup November 24 to 25, 6 weeks after President Kasavubu has dismissed Moise Tshombe as premier. Secretary of State for National Defense Gen. Mobutu, now 35, deposes President Kasavubu, makes himself president, and proceeds to rule by decree (see 1962; 1966).
Former Australian political leader Herbert V. Evatt dies at Canberra November 2 at age 71, having retired from politics in 1960 to become chief justice of New South Wales.
Ukrainian-born Soviet leader Nikolai Viktorovich Podgorny, 62, takes over the presidency of the USSR December 9, succeeding Anastas Mikoyan. He will retain the position until 1977.
Malcolm X is shot dead at age 39 February 21 at Harlem's Audubon Ballroom as he prepares to address a Sunday afternoon audience on the need for blacks and whites to coexist peacefully (see 1952). Three alleged assassins will be convicted next year of shooting the leader of the Organization of Afro-American Unity with a sawed-off shotgun, but it will never be established whether or not they were members of the Black Muslim sect with which Malcolm X broke last year.
Selma, Ala., is the focus of civil-rights demonstrations throughout February and March. Martin Luther King Jr. and 770 others are arrested February 1 at Selma during demonstrations against state regulations relating to voter registration, black marchers leave Selma March 7 for the state capital at Montgomery after 2,000 prospective voters have been arrested in registration lines or in demonstrations, the marchers are attacked by 200 Alabama state police using tear gas, whips, and night sticks. Gov. Wallace refuses police protection for a second march. President Johnson sends in 3,000 federalized National Guardsmen and military police, the marchers leave Selma March 21 and arrive at Montgomery March 25. Four Ku Klux Klansmen overtake Detroit civil-rights leader Viola Liuzzo (née Gregg), 38, after a high-speed chase outside Montgomery March 25 and shoot her dead, wounding the black passenger who has sat beside her in the front seat and pretends to be dead. Some 25,000 attend the rally at Montgomery that day. Klan members burn a cross on the front lawn of the Liuzzo home, and the FBI spreads false stories that Mrs. Liuzzo was a drug addict and having extra-marital sex with the black man, but President Johnson announces the next day that arrests have been made and appeals to Klansmen to quit the Klan and return to a decent life before it is too late. An FBI informant has fingered Liuzzo's killers, an all-white jury refuses to convict them, but an all-white federal jury at Montgomery returns a verdict of guilty December 3 against three of the Ku Klux Klan members who murdered her, and they receive 10-year prison sentences.
North Carolina judge James B. McMillan, 49, orders busing of schoolchildren to achieve racial desegregation as required by the 1954 Supreme Court decision and last year's Civil Rights Act. Judge McMillan's order for crosstown busing in the Charlotte-Mecklenburg County school system starts a pattern that will be followed in much of the country, but the use of busing creates a storm of controversy (see 1971).
Gunmen at Varnado, La., ambush the car of Washington Parish sheriff Oneal Moore, 34, June 2, kill him, and maim his deputy Creed Rogers. Moore has been the parish's first black sheriff; police arrest white supremacist Ernest Ray McElveen, but charges of murder against him will be dropped and no one will be prosecuted.
Chicago police arrest 526 antisegregation demonstrators from June 11 to 15 after the rehiring of a school superintendent. The demonstrations continue nevertheless and Martin Luther King Jr. leads a march of 20,000 to City Hall July 26. J. Edgar Hoover of the FBI claims that King is a communist agent.
A new Voting Rights Act signed into law by President Johnson August 10 abolishes literacy tests and other barriers used by many jurisdictions in the South to evade the provisions of last year's Civil Rights Act, authorizing federal intervention against discrimination at the polls; Sen. Everett M. Dirksen (R. Ill.) has played a key role in gaining congressional passage of the measure, and federal examiners begin registering black voters in Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi despite violent demonstrations by Ku Klux Klan members and others who mount resistance to the new civil-rights laws.
Ruby Doris Smith Robinson (her married name) dies of lymphoma at Atlanta at age 25 (see 1960). She has been a leader in the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), registering voters, being arrested for trying to use white-only toilets, and participating with Freedom Riders in challenging segregation of buses in interstate travel.
The Watts section of Los Angeles has violent race riots beginning August 12 after a white police officer arrests a black motorist; upwards of 10,000 blacks burn and loot an area of 500 square blocks and destroy an estimated $40 million worth of property in 5 days of disturbances. Some 15,000 police and National Guardsmen are called in, 34 persons killed (28 of them blacks), nearly 4,000 arrested, and more than 200 business establishments totally destroyed.
Amos 'n Andy is withdrawn from syndication following protests against its stereotyped images of blacks. Started as a radio show in 1928, Amos 'n Andy has been a leading television program since 1949, with blacks playing the roles originally created by whites.
Soviet cosmonaut Aleksei Arkhipovich Leonov, 30, makes a 10-minute excursion outside Voskhod II March 18 while passing 110 miles above the Crimea in the first space walk. He makes observations, takes motion pictures, practices maneuvering in free-fall, and reenters the spacecraft over western Siberia; the U.S. space shuttle Gemini 3 launched March 23 carries Indiana-born Virgil (Ivan) "Gus" Grissom, 38, and San Francisco-born John W. (Watts) Young, 34, to a maximum altitude of 139 miles on its first orbit and lands in the South Atlantic after nearly 5 hours in space; Texas-born astronaut Edward White II, 34, becomes the first American to walk in space June 3 when he floats outside Gemini 4 for 22 minutes.
President Johnson proclaims a "war on poverty" in his January 4 State of the Union message outlining his plans for a "Great Society;" he signs a $1.4 billion program of federal-state economic aid to Appalachia into law March 9, but U.S. military involvement in Southeast Asia escalates, draining the U.S. economy.
New York City's welfare roll grows to 480,000. The number of welfare recipients will be 1.2 million by 1975, and the city's welfare agency will account for more than a quarter of the city's budget with half the welfare aid reimbursed by the federal government.
Former Republic Steel chairman Tom Girdler dies at Easton, Md., February 4 at age 87; former Wall Street speculator and presidential adviser Bernard M. Baruch of a heart attack at New York June 20 at age 94.
The Diners Club of America founded in 1950 reaches a membership of 1.3 million, having converted its charge card to a credit card. American Express has 1.2 million after just 7 years, and major U.S. banks prepare to issue credit cards of their own (see BankAmericard, 1958; 1966; Master Charge, 1966). Not only restaurants but also hotels, motels, airlines, travel agencies, car rental agencies, and many retail stores now honor the plastic credit cards.
The United States Mint switches to "clad" coins in a move to conserve silver by eliminating its use in dollars, half-dollars, quarters, and dimes.
The United States contributes roughly 1 percent of her Gross National Product (GNP) to foreign aid as proposed by Adlai Stevenson in 1961, but the percentage will decline sharply (see 1967).
Britain freezes wages, salaries, and prices in an effort to check inflation and improve the nation's worsening trade deficit (see 1961; 1967).
Japan has her first trade surplus with the United States: $330 million.
Wall Street's Dow Jones Industrial Average closes September 2 at 900.40 and goes on to close December 31 at 969.26, up from 874.13 at the end of 1964.
The worst power failure thus far in U.S. history blacks out most of seven states and Ontario November 9, affecting 30 million people in an 80,000-square-mile area. New York's power fails at 5:27 in the afternoon, Brooklyn regains it at 2 the next morning, Queens at 4:20 in the morning, Manhattan at 6:58. Telephone companies maintain service and New York has a record 62 million phone calls in one day, nearly double the city's weekly average. Con Edison assures the public that no blackouts will recur (but see 1977).
The S.S. Michelangelo and the S.S. Raffaello go into service for the Italian line. The 45,911-ton sister ships are each 904 feet in length overall.
The Zeeland Bridge opened by Queen Juliana of the Netherlands is the longest bridge in Europe; it connects North Beveland with Schouwen-Duiveland more than a mile away and cuts the Rotterdam-Flushing run from 90 miles to 70.
West Germany's Emmerich Bridge opens to span the Rhine. It is 500 meters in length.
Bridge designer Othmar H. Ammann dies at Rye, N.Y., September 22 at age 86.
South Korea's 18-year-old Hyundai Group initiates a road-building project in Thailand and begins its growth as a multinational conglomerate (see Hyundai Motor Corp., 1967).
Brazil produces her one millionth automobile. Willys-Overland do Brasil, S.A., is Brazil's largest; more than 50 percent owned by Brazilians, it also makes trucks and Jeeps (see 1945).
U.S. production of soft-top convertibles peaks at 507,000 for the model year 1965. The figure will drop to 28,000 by 1974 as air-pollution, vandalism in the form of top-slashing, higher driving speeds, body rattles, and factory-installed air conditioning discourage sales of convertibles.
Unsafe at Any Speed by consumer advocate Ralph Nader notes that more than 51,000 Americans are killed each year by automobiles, a figure the Department of Commerce had projected for 1975 (see 1964). Nader has quit his job with the Department of Labor to crusade for consumer protection (he is silent on the issue of U.S. participation in the Vietnam War) and he writes, "For more than half a century, the automobile has brought death, injury and the most inestimable sorrow and deprivation to millions of people."
A court order requires General Motors to make its bus patents freely available to other bus makers and to sell parts, engines, and designs to other busmakers in settlement of the suit brought by the Justice Department in 1956, but GM's grip on the bus market will remain virtually undiminished.
Aircraft designer and manufacturer Sir Geoffrey de Havilland dies at Watford, Hertfordshire, May 21 at age 82.
The Soviet Antonov AN-22 demonstrated at Paris June 16 is the world's largest aircraft, with a payload capacity of 80,000 kilograms (80 tons). First flown February 27, the transport plane is 57.8 meters in length, has a 64.4-meter wingspan, and carries a five- to eight-man crew. Its four Kuznetsov turboprop engines give it a cruising speed of 680 kilometers per hour and a ceiling of 10,000 meters. Aeroflot and the Soviet military will use Antonov AN-22s mostly for carrying supplies to eastern Siberia.
"Fly the Friendly Skies of United," say new commercials for United Airlines. The slogan will be repeated for decades.
The April 19 issue of Electronics magazine carries an article by San Francisco-born Fairchild engineer Gordon E. (Edward) Moore, 36, who predicts that the number of transistors that can fit onto a microchip will double every 18 months (see Intel, 1968). Oregon-born Douglas C. Englebart, 40, has made a similar prediction about the scaling down of circuits and will play a key role in designing an interactive computing system (see "mouse," 1968), but Bakersfield, Calif.-born CalTech computer scientist Carver Mead, now 30, will credit Moore with the prediction and it will come to be called "Moore's Law."
A polymer that will later be called Kevlar is patented by E. I. DuPont, whose Pennsylvania-born research chemist Stephanie Kwolek, 42, has been looking for a fiber to reinforce radial tires and created a synthetic fiber that is five times stronger than steel. Her colleague Joseph Rivers will fashion it into a bullet-proof vest, and it will also be used in automobile brakes, fire optic cables, firefighters' boots, military helmets, skis, and racing sails.
The Gulf Stream by Wilmington, Del.-born Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute oceanographer Henry (Melson) Stommel, 44, recognizes that the deep current of warm water wanders about and was difficult for earlier scientists to study in any systematic way without modern instruments. Stommel has determined that the rotation of the Earth creates similar currents in oceans worldwide, and that rather than being a surface phenomenon the Gulf Stream forms a boundary between cold northern waters and the warm, currentless Sargasso Sea in the center of the North Atlantic.
Nobel physicist Sir Edward V. Appleton dies at Edinburgh April 21 at age 72, having discovered a layer of the ionosphere that permitted development of reliable long-wave radio transmission and helped developers of radar; Nobel chemist and DDT discoverer Paul Hermann Müller dies of cardiovascular disease at Basel October 12 at age 66.
Congress establishes a National Clearinghouse for Smoking and Health and orders that cigarette packages be labeled "Caution: cigarette smoking may be hazardous to your health." The $2 million appropriated by Congress for the National Clearinghouse is less than 1 percent of the amount spent on TV advertising by the tobacco industry, and the legislation frees the industry from Federal Trade Commission regulations for the next 4 years. The major tobacco companies continue to diversify by acquiring food companies (see 1967).
Britain bans cigarette advertising from commercial television beginning August 1.
The U.S. death rate falls to 943.2 per 100,000, down from 1,719 in 1900.
Burma physician Gordon S. Seagrave dies at his jungle hospital at Namkham March 28 at age 68; cortisone pioneer Philip S. Hench of pneumonia in a diabetic coma at Ochos Rios, Jamaica, March 30 age 69; Nobel physician-missionary Albert Schweitzer of circulatory trouble at Lambaréné, Gabon, September 4 at age 90.
Pope Paul VI and the archbishop of Istanbul Athenagoras I agree to a revocation of the mutual excommunication decrees that have kept the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox Churches irreconcilable since 1054. The two met last year at Jerusalem, the first meeting between the heads of the two churches since 1439, and the reconciliation is celebrated with simultaneous services at St. Peter's Basilica in Rome and the patriarchal church at Istanbul.
The International Society for Krishna Consciousness is founded at New York by Calcutta chemist and Sanskrit scholar A. C. Bhaktivedanta, 59, whose followers call him Swami Prabhupada and regard him as the successor to an unbroken chain of Hindu spiritual teachers dating back 5,000 years. The swami has arrived in New York with $50 in rupees and a pair of cymbals, determined to spread the teachings of Lord Krishna, a supreme deity in Hindu mythology. He sits on a sidewalk in the East Village, begins the "Hare Krishna" chant that will soon become familiar throughout the world, offers young people a relatively ascetic life of devotion and proselytizing, an alternative to conventional society and drugs, and is soon holding religious classes in an empty storefront on Second Avenue, attracting youths who shave their heads, wear saffron-colored dhatis, and chant, "Hare Krishna."
The Canterbury Shaker Village in New Hampshire closes its door to converts but Sabbathday Lake in Maine remains open, creating a bitter schism. Historians will argue over whether Shakerism faded out because of its celibacy rule or because a growingly progressive leadership caused it to adopt conventional expressions of piety in place of ecstatic and shamanistic expressions.
Father Divine (George Baker) dies of lung congestion related to atherosclerosis and diabetes at Philadelphia September 10 at an age estimated to be between 88 and 100.
The Elementary and Secondary Education Act signed into law by President Johnson April 11 initiates the most sweeping program of federal aid to education. Title 1 of the program authorizes $1.3 billion to school districts to hire remedial teachers for needy students. The Head Start program to prepare preschool children from low-income families begins May 18. Community Action Program director Jack T. Conway, 48, has arranged financing for an effort based on a concept that will be credited in part to Vanderbilt University psychologist Susan W. Gray, now 51, who worked with poor children in Murfreesboro, Tenn., to develop an Early Training Project, and to New York educator Martin Deutsch, now 40, and his wife, Cynthia, who started a pilot program 3 years ago for pre-schoolers from disadvantaged neighborhoods. Critics from both sides of the political spectrum will attack Head Start from the outset, charging either that it promotes political patronage or has little actual benefit for the poor, and although President Johnson will claim that it raises the IQs of disadvantaged children by 10 percent and will push an escalation of spending on the program in its first year from $18 million to $50 million to $150 million, a 1995 Department of Health and Human Services study will conclude that "in the long run, cognitive and socio-emotional test scores of former Head Start students do not remain superior to those of disadvantaged students who did not attend Head Start."
U.S. university enrollments swell as young Americans take advantage of draft deferrals for college students to escape the expanding war in Vietnam, but campuses are tense with unrest.
Forty percent of U.S. women receive bachelors' and masters' degrees, up from 24 percent in 1950.
The University of California opens new Irvine and Santa Cruz campuses (see 1944; human rights, 1964).
Simon Fraser University opens in September at Vancouver, B.C., taking its name from the early 19th-century explorer, the university will grow to have about 25,000 undergraduate and graduate students.
Hampshire College is founded at Amherst, Mass., to provide a liberal arts education for young men and women. Some Amherst, Mount Holyoke, Smith, and University of Massachusetts professors join forces to create an alternative to more traditional schools (see 1970).
The Higher Education Act signed into law by President Johnson November 8 provides financial assistance to college students in the form of Basic Educational Opportunity Grants (they will be renamed Pell Grants in 1980 to honor education subcommittee chairman Sen. Claiborne Pell [R. R.I.]). The measure also establishes Guaranteed Student Loans (they will be renamed Stafford Loans in 1988 to honor Sen. Robert Stafford).
Britain's Universities of Kent and Warwick are founded.
University College is founded at Britain's Cambridge University.
Texas-born political operative Richard A. (Art) Viguerie, 31, starts a direct-mail company in January to promote right-wing views that he says are being ignored by the "liberals" who control the mainstream media. Viguerie has gone to the Library of Congress, found the names and addresses of people who contributed to last year's Goldwater campaign, copied them down, and uses the information as the basis for fund-raising efforts (seeConservative Digest, 1975).
Britain's Wales West and North television service begins March 26, as does service to the Isle of Man.
New York's first all-news radio programming begins April 19 on Westinghouse Broadcasting's WINS. Other stations across the country will follow suit as radio becomes more specialized.
CBS News veteran Edward R. Murrow dies of lung and brain cancer at Pawling, N.Y., April 27 at age 57; veteran radio commentator H. V. Kaltenborn of a heart attack at his Brooklyn, N.Y., home June 14 at age 86; television pioneer Allen B. Du Mont at New York November 15 at age 64.
Sony Corp. introduces the Chromatron television set (see 1959); it is the first Japanese-made color television to be sold in America (see 1966).
Sony Corp. introduces Betamax, a small home "videocorder" (see 1956; 1975).
"Early Bird" is the world's first commercial satellite. Put into orbit by the 3-year-old Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT), it relays telephone messages and television programs between Europe and the United States, beginning a global network of space communications planned by COMSAT.
The Havana daily newspaper Granma is created by the merger of Hoy and Revolucíon; both have been the organs of Cuba's Communist Party and of Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movement, respectively. Named for the yacht that carried Castro and his companions from Mexico to Cuba in 1956, Granma will publish weekly French and English editions as well as its daily Spanish edition.
Journalist Quentin Reynolds dies at Travis Air Force Base, Calif., March 17 at age 65; Chicago Sun-Times and Daily News publisher Marshall Field Jr. of acute congestive heart failure at Chicago September 18 at age 49.
Nonfiction: Manchild in the Promised Land by Harlem-born reform school veteran Claude Brown, 28, chronicles the author's rise from a childhood of poverty and violent crime. It will be translated into 14 languages and have sales of more than 4 million copies in Brown's lifetime; The Autobiography of Malcolm X by the late Afro-American Unity leader and writer Alex Haley, 43. A cook in the U.S. Coast Guard from 1939 to 1959, Haley begins research in the National Archives at Washington to learn the history of his own family (see Fiction [Roots], 1976); In Cold Blood: A True Account of a Multiple Murder and Its Consequences by Truman Capote, whose work is serialized in the New Yorker magazine (see crime, 1959). It will later be revealed that Capote has added a fictionalized scene at the end; The Paranoid Style in American Politics by Richard Hofstadter; The Life of the Mind in America by the late historian Perry Miller; The Americans (Volume 2): The National Experience by Daniel J. Boorstin; The Revolution of American Conservatism by Baltimore-born Brandeis University historian David Hackett Fischer, 29; Seeing This U.S.A.: An Unequaled Family Portrait of 194,067,286 Americans Drawn from the Census by Minneapolis-born retired census director Richard M. Scammon, 49, and New York-born presidential speechwriter Ben J. Wattenberg, 32; American Diplomacy During the Second World War by Newark, N.J.-born Yale historian Gaddis Smith, 32; The Defeat of Canadian Nationalism by Toronto-born philosopher George (Parkin) Grant, 46, who deplores a decision by Prime Minister Pearson to allow cruise-missile testing over Canada; Hiroshima Notes (Hiroshima nōto) by Kenzaburo Oe; The Bolsheviks by Polish-born Harvard historian Adam B. (Bruno) Ulam, 43, whose elder mathematician brother Stanislaw helped to develop the hydrogen bomb at Los Alamos; The Secular City: Secularization and Urbanization in Theological Perspective by Pennsylvania-born theologian Harvey (Gallagher) Cox (Jr.), 36, who wins appointment as associate professor at Harvard Divinity School; The Virtue of Selfishness by Ayn Rand; Yes I Can by entertainer Sammy Davis Jr., now 39, who lost an eye in a motorcar accident 11 years ago; The Psychedelic Reader by Springfield, Mass.-born former Harvard psychology professor Timothy Leary, 44, who has experimented with marijuana and other behavior-changing drugs. Leary and his colleague Richard Alpert, now 30, were fired from Harvard 2 years ago for experimenting in psychedelic drugs (Alpert will later travel to India and take the name Ram Dass); Leary advises readers to "drop out, turn on, tune in."
Philosopher-theologian-educator Martin Buber dies at Jerusalem June 13 at age 87; historian-diplomat James T. Shotwell at New York July 15 at age 90; philosopher-theologian-educator Paul Tillich at Chicago October 22 at age 79; historian Arthur M. Schlesinger at Boston October 30 at age 77.
Fiction: Everything That Rises Must Converge by the late Flannery O'Connor; The Painted Bird by Polish-born U.S. novelist Jerzy Kosinski, 32; The House of Assignation (La Maison de rendezvous) by Alain Robbe-Grillet; Bodysnatchers (Juntacadaveres) by Juan Carlos Onetti; An American Dream by Norman Mailer; God Bless You, Mr. Rosewater by Kurt Vonnegut Jr.; At Play in the Fields of the Lord by Peter Matthiessen is about missionaries in the South American rain forest; The Magus by John Fowles; Not for Publication (stories) by Nadine Gordimer; Why Shoot the Teacher? by Saskatchewan-born schoolteacher-humorist Max Braithwaite, 53, who has been writing children's books, magazine articles, radio dramas, and film and stage scripts; The Orchard Keeper by Providence, R.I.-born novelist Charles "Cormac" McCarthy Jr., 32; One by One by English-born U.S. journalist-novelist Penelope Gilliatt (née Conner), 33, who will develop the screenplay for Sunday, Bloody Sunday from her book; The Nowhere City by Alison Lurie is about Los Angeles; Hotel by Arthur Hailey, who has read 27 books on the hotel industry; Fair Game by Moline, Ill.-born novelist Diane Johnson (née Lain), 31; The Millstone by Margaret Drabble; Cork Street, next to the Hatters: A Novel in Bad Taste by Pamela Hansford Johnson (Lady Snow, since her husband, C. P. Snow, was given a life peerage last year).
Novelist-playwright Sophie Kerr dies at New York February 6 at age 84; journalist-novelist Robert C. Ruark of an internal hemorrhage at London July 1 at age 49; novelist Junichiro Tanizaki at Yugawara July 3 at age 79; Eugene Burdick of a heart attack at San Diego July 26 at age 46; Shirley Jackson of a heart attack at North Bennington, Vt., August 8 at age 46; Thomas B. Costain of a stroke at New York October 8 at age 80; Dawn Powell of cancer at New York November 15 at age 67; novelist-playwright W. Somerset Maugham of a stroke at Nice December 16 at age 91.
Poetry: The Old Glory (three verse dramas based on Herman Melville and Nathaniel Hawthorne stories) by Robert Lowell; Where Is Vietnam? and Christ Climbed Down by Lawrence Ferlinghetti; The Lost World by Randall Jarrell; Questions of Travel by Elizabeth Bishop; The Privilege by Maxine Kumin; Ariel by the late Sylvia Plath; "Transients" by Al Purdy, who wins Canada's coveted Governor General's Award; Six Sections from Mountains and Rivers Without End, Plus One by Gary Snyder; Plain Song by Michigan-born poet Jim (James Thomas) Harrison, 27.
Poet-playwright T. S. Eliot dies at London January 4 at age 76; poet-novelist Joseph Auslander of a heart attack at Coral Gables, Fla., June 22 at age 67; Randall Jarrell walks in front of an oncoming car at Chapel Hill, N.C., October 14 and is killed at age 51.
Juvenile: Shadow of a Bull by Polish-born U.S. author Maia Wojciechowska, 38, whose family escaped from Poland at the start of the German invasion in 1939 and who worked with her brother in France to commit acts of sabotage against the occupation forces; Over Sea, Under Stone by English author-playwright-journalist Susan (Mary) Cooper, 30, begins a five-volume fantasy series ("The Dark Is Rising") for young adults; Night Dweller by Terry Pratchett, now 17; The Secret by Elizabeth Coatsworth, now 72; Fox in Socks and I Had Trouble Getting to Solla Sollew by Dr. Seuss.
Author Eleanor Farjeon dies at Hampstead in her native London June 5 at age 84.
Painting: Every Building on the Sunset Strip by Edward Ruscha; Campbell's Tomato Soup Can and '65 Liz by Andy Warhol; "op" art that creates optical illusions by using color, form, and perspective in bizarre ways becomes fashionable; Self-portrait by Pablo Picasso; The Blank Signature by René Magritte; Sky above Clouds IV by Georgia O'Keefe, now 77; Orange Grove (acrylic and pencil on canvas) by Agnes Martin; F-111 by James Rosenquist, who has conceived the 86-by-10-foot work as a reaction to military power and consumer culture; The History of the Russian Revolution from Marx to Mayakovsky by Larry Rivers, whose mixed-media work includes some 30 paintings plus found objects that include a machine gun. Milton Avery dies at New York January 3 at age 71; Charles Sheeler at Dobbs Ferry, N.Y., May 7 at age 81 (a stroke ended his career 5 years ago).
Sculpture: How to Explain Pictures to a Dead Hare by Joseph Beuys (performance); Eighter from Decatur (paint, cord, and metal on masonite) by German-born New York sculptor Eva Hesse, 29; French-born sculptor Niki (originally Catherine Marie-Agnès Fal) de Saint Phalle, 34, receives a visit from the pregnant wife of artist Larry Rivers and uses Clarice as the basis for a series of "Nanas" (Nana being a slightly rude French term for woman). A friend of the Swiss sculptor Jean Tinguely, de Saint Phalle was expelled from New York's Brearley School in her youth for painting the fig leaves on the school's artworks red; Untitled (perforated steel) by Missouri-born sculptor Donald Judd, 37. David Smith dies at Albany, N.Y., May 24 at age 59 from injuries suffered when a truck that he was driving on a Vermont road rolled over on him.
The Federal Aid to the Arts Act signed by President Johnson September 30 establishes a National Endowment for the Arts and Humanities funded by an initial 3-year appropriation of $63 million.
Documentary photographer Dorothea Lange dies at San Francisco October 11 at age 70 (her famous 1935 picture Migrant Mother now hangs in the Library of Congress; the woman who posed for it will live to age 83). New York's Museum of Modern Art will honor Lange's memory with a retrospective show next year.
Theater: Loot by Joe Orton 2/2 at Brighton, England; The Odd Couple by Neil Simon 3/10 at New York's Plymouth Theater, with Walter Matthau as Oscar Madison, Art Carney as Felix Ungar, 964 perfs.; The Amen Corner by James Baldwin 4/15 at New York's Ethel Barrymore Theater, with Beah Richards, Juanita Hall, Frank Silvera, 84 perfs.; The Chinese Prime Minister by Enid Bagnold 5/20 at London's Globe Theater, with Dame Edith Evans, Alan Webb, Brian Aherne; The Homecoming by Harold Pinter 6/3 at London's Aldwych Theatre, with Vivien Merchant, Paul Rogers, Ian Holm, Pinter; The Killing of Sister George by German-born English playwright Frank Marcus, 37, 6/8 at the Duke of York's Theatre, London, with Beryl Reid, Eileen Atkins, 620 perfs. ("Sister George" is the kindly district nurse played in the long-running BBC soap opera Applehurst by a sadistic, cigar-smoking, hard-drinking lesbian who bullies her 34-year-old blonde flatmate "Childene" McNaughton and whose role has just been eliminated); Generation by U.S. playwright William Goodhart 10/6 at New York's Morosco Theater, with Henry Fonda, 299 perfs.; The Road by Nigerian-born Yoruba playwright-poet Wole (originally Akinwnde Oluwole) Soyinka, 31, in October at London's Theatre Royal; Saved by English playwright Edward Bond 11/3 at London's Royal Court Theatre, with John Castle, Dennis Waterman, Ronald Pickup; Hogan's Goat by New York-born playwright William Alfred, 43, 11/11 at New York's American Place Theater in St. Clements Church, with Ralph Waite, Cliff Gorman, Faye Dunaway, 607 perfs.; Cactus Flower by Abe Burrows 12/8 at New York's Royale Theater, with Lauren Bacall, Barry Nelson, Brooklyn-born actress Brenda Vaccaro, 25, 1,234 perfs.
Playwright Lorraine Hansberry dies of cancer at New York January 12 age 36; playwright-novelist Clemence Dane (Winifred Ashton) at London March 28 at age 77; James Rennie at New York July 13 at age 75; circus performer-animal trainer Clyde Beatty of cancer at Ventura, Calif., July 19 at age 61; actress Catherine Dale Owen at New York September 7 at age 62; magician Harry Blackstone of a pulmonary edema at Hollywood November 16 at age 80; comedian Al Ritz of the Ritz Brothers at New Orleans December 22 at age 64.
New York's Vivian Beaumont Theater opens in Lincoln Center October 21. Designed by the late Eero Saarinen, it has 1,140 seats.
Television: Orlando 4/13 on Britain's ITV with Sam Kydd, David Munro, Judy Robinson (to 6/10/1968); Tomorrow's World 7/7 on BBC-1 is a science future series; Lost in Space 9/5 on CBS with New York-born actor Patrick McGoohan, 37, in a science-fiction series (to 3/6/68, 83 episodes); F Troop 9/14 on ABC with Ken Berry, Forrest Tucker, Larry Storch, (to 8/31/1967, 65 episodes); Green Acres 9/15 on CBS with Eddie Albert, Eva Gabor in a spinoff of The Beverly Hillbillies (to 9/2/1971); Hogan's Heroes 9/17 on CBS with Waterbury, Conn.-born actor Bob (Edward) Crane, 36, German-born actor Werner Klemperer, 45 (to 7/4/1971); I Dream of Jeannie 9/18 on NBC with Tucson-born actress Barbara Eden (Barbara Huffman), 31, Larry Hagman in a series devised by novelist Sidney Sheldon (to 9/1/1970, 139 episodes); Get Smart 9/18 on NBC with New York-born actor Don Adams (Donald James Yarny), 37, as Maxwell Smart (who incessantly says, "Sorry about that" and "Would you believe?"), Pittsburgh-born actress Barbara Feldon, 24 (to 9/11/1970); Days of Our Lives 11/8 on NBC (daytime) with Macdonald Carey, Frances Reid (created by Ted Corday, Allan Chase, and Irna Phillips, the half-hour soap opera will be expanded to a full hour beginning 4/21/1975); The Wild, Wild West 11/1 on CBS with Chicago-born martial arts and boxing expert Robert Conrad (Conrad Robert Falk), 30, and Ross Martin as secret government agents in a science-fiction Western set in the 1880s (it will be canceled in 1970 after complaints of excessive violence).
Jersey City-born comedian Clerow "Flip" Wilson, 30, appears on Johnny Carson's Tonight Show and creates a sensation. Wilson made his comedy debut at a San Francisco hotel while working as a bellhop, he has appeared as a comic and master of ceremonies at Harlem's Apollo Theater, but the exposure on Carson's show launches him to fame; by 1972 he will be earning more than $1 million per year (see 1969).
What's My Line panelist Dorothy Kilgallen appears on the show 11/7 but is found dead at age 52 the next day in her New York town house. A coroner's report blames a mixture of alcohol and sleeping pills.
Films: Stuart Burge's Othello with Laurence Olivier, Frank Finlay, Maggie Smith, 30, Joyce Redman; Sidney Lumet's The Pawnbroker with Rod Steiger; Roman Polanski's Repulsion with Cathérine Deneuve; Jan Kadar's The Shop on Main Street with Elmar Klos, Josef Kroner, Ida Kaminska. Also: John Schlesinger's Darling with Indian-born British actress Julie Christie, 24, Dirk Bogarde, Laurence Harvey; Luis Buñuel's Diary of a Chambermaid with Jeanne Moreau; Richard Kaplan's documentary The Eleanor Roosevelt Story with narration by Archibald Macleish, Eric Sevareid, Francis Cole; Robert Aldrich's The Flight of the Phoenix with James Stewart, Richard Attenborough, Peter Finch, Hardy Kruger; Sidney Lumet's The Hill with Sean Connery, Michael Redgrave, Ossie Davis, 47; Sidney J. Furie's The Ipcress File with London-born actor Michael Caine (Maurice Micklewhite), 32; Tony Richardson's The Loved One with Robert Morse, Dayton, Ohio-born comedian Jonathan Winters, 39; Milos Forman's Loves of a Blonde with Hana Brejchova, Josef Sebanek; Wojciech J. Has's The Saragossa Manuscript with Zbigniew Cybulski; Guy Green's A Patch of Blue with Sidney Poitier, Elizabeth Hartman, 23 (as a blind girl), Shelley Winters; Fred Coe's A Thousand Clowns with Jason Robards Jr., Evanston, Ill.-born actress Barbara Harris (originally Markowitz), 28, Barry Gordon, Martin Balsam, Gene Saks.
Comedian Stan Laurel dies of a diabetic stroke at Santa Monica February 23 at age 74; actress Margaret Dumont of a heart attack at Hollywood March 6 at age 75; Mae Murray of a heart ailment at Woodland Hills, Calif., March 23 at age 75; Linda Darnell April 10 at age 43 at Chicago, where she has been treated for burns; Louise Dresser at Woodland Hills April 29 at age 84; Judy Holliday of cancer at New York June 7 at age 42; producer David O. Selznick of a heart attack at Hollywood June 22 at age 63; actress Mary Boland at New York June 23 at age 83; Constance Bennett of a cerebral hemorrhage at Fort Dix, N.J., July 24 at age 61; Everett Sloane is found dead of a sleeping-pill overdose at his West Los Angeles home August 6 at age 55 (he had feared going blind); Dorothy Dandridge dies of an embolism at her Hollywood apartment September 8 at age 41; Clara Bow of a heart attack at her West Los Angeles home September 26 at age 60; Zachary Scott of a brain tumor at Austin, Texas, October 3 at age 51; Technicolor co-developer Natalie M. Kalmus in a Boston suburb November 15 at age 87.
Stage musicals: Baker Street 2/16 at New York's Broadway Theater, with Pittsburgh-born actor Fritz Weaver, 39, as Sherlock Holmes, Inga Swenson, music and lyrics by Marian Grudeff and Raymond Jessel, 313 perfs.; The Roar of the Greasepaint—The Smell of the Crowd 5/16 at New York's Shubert Theater, with Anthony Newley, Cyril Ritchard, Sally Smith, book, music, and lyrics by Leslie Bricusse and Newley, songs that include "Who Can I Turn To (When Nobody Needs Me)," 231 perfs.; On a Clear Day You Can See Forever 10/17 at New York's Mark Hellinger Theater, with Barbara Harris, William Daniels, music by Burton Lane, lyrics by Alan Jay Lerner, songs that include the title song, 272 perfs.; The Zulu and the Zayda 11/10 at New York's Cort Theater, with Ossie Davis, Louis Gosset Jr., Menasha Skulnik, book by Howard Da Silva and Felix Leon based on a story by Dan Jacobson, music and lyrics by Harold Rome, 179 perfs.; Man of La Mancha 11/22 at New York's ANTA-Washington Square Theater, with Richard Kiley, Joan Diener, Ray Middleton, Irving Jacobson, Robert Rounseville, book based on the 1615 Cervantes novel Don Quijote de la Mancha, music by Mitch Leigh, 37, lyrics by Joe Darian, 48, songs that include "The Impossible Dream," "Dulcinea," and the title song, 2,329 perfs.; Charlie Girl 12/15 at London's Adelphi Theatre, with Christine Holmes, Anna Neagle, music and lyrics by David Heneker and John Taylor, 2,202 perfs.
Vaudeville veteran Eugene Howard dies at New York August 1 at age 84, survived by his brother Willie.
Opera: Montserrat Caballé, now 32, replaces U.S. mezzo-soprano Marilyn (Bernice) Horne, 31, 4/20 in a concert performance of the 1833 Donizetti opera Lucrezia Borgia and creates a sensation (she will be the leading Verdi and Donizetti soprano of her day); Janet Baker sings the role of Dido in the 1689 Purcell opera Dido and Aeneas at Glyndebourne; Italian soprano Mirella Freni (Fregni), 30, makes her Metropolitan Opera debut 9/29 singing the role of Mimi in the 1896 Puccini opera La Bohème; Sherill Milnes makes his Metropolitan Opera debut 12/22 singing the role of Valentin in the 1859 Gounod opera Faust.
Former Metropolitan Opera bass-baritone Michael Bohnen dies of a heart attack at West Berlin April 26 at age 77; baritone Herbert Janssen of cancer at New York June 3 at age 69; tenor Tito Schipa at New York December 16 at age 76.
Portland, Ore.-born ballet dancer-choreographer Twyla Tharp, 24, breaks with the Paul Taylor Dance Company after 3 years and becomes a free-lance choreographer with her own modern-dance troupe.
Cellist Jacqueline du Pré tours the United States. Now 20, she will marry pianist-conductor Daniel Barenboim in 1967 and appear with him in duo recitals, but multiple sclerosis will cut short her career in 1973.
First performances: Symphony No. 8 by Walter Piston 3/5 at Boston's Symphony Hall; Gemini Variations on an Epigram of Kodaly for Flute, Violin, and Piano Duet by Benjamin Britten in June at Aldeburgh's Jubilee Hall; From the Steeples and Mountains by the late Charles Ives (who wrote it in 1901) 7/30 at New York's Philharmonic Hall; The Golden Brown and the Green Apple by Duke Ellington 7/30 at New York's Philharmonic Hall; Voices for Today by Britten 10/24 (20th anniversary of the United Nations) at New York, London, and Paris.
Former G. Schirmer music publisher president Gustave Schirmer dies at Palm Beach, Fla., May 28 at age 74; composer-conductor Edgard Varèse at New York November 8 at age 79; concert pianist Dame Myra Hess of a heart attack at London November 25 at age 75; composer Henry Cowell at Shady, N.Y., December 10 at age 78; composer and Tokyo Philharmonic founder Koscak Yamada at Tokyo December 29 at age 79.
The Rolling Stones gain huge success with a recording of "[I Can't Get No] Satisfaction." The 2-year-old English rock group has taken its name from the 1950 Muddy Waters blues song "Rollin' Stone," and invokes a moody, frankly sexual tone derivative of Chuck Berry that makes the Beatles sound like choirboys by comparison. Michael Philip "Mick" Jagger, now 22, leads the group with backing from guitarist-songwriter Keith Richards, 19; drummer Charlie Watts, 22; and bass guitarist Bill Wyman, (originally William George Perks), 26.
The Grateful Dead has its beginnings in a San Francisco acid-rock group started at 710 Ashbury Street by local electric guitarist Jerry Garcia, 24, with drummer Mickey Hart (whose father will vanish with the group's profits), Ron "Pigpen" McKernan, and others. Garcia has dropped acid with Ken Kesey, he has taken the name Grateful Dead from an Oxford English Dictionary notation on the burial of Egyptian pharaohs, his admirers call him Captain Trips, and although McKernan will die of alcohol and drugs and Garcia will receive a year's probation in New Jersey in 1973 for possession of LSD, marijuana, and cocaine, the group will continue until Garcia's death in 1995, attracting huge crowds of "Deadheads" to their concerts and permitting them to tape the concerts without charge (while nevertheless earning tens of millions of dollars per year).
Big Brother and the Holding Company is founded by San Francisco rock musicians Peter Albin, 20, Sam Andrew, 23, James Martin Gurley, 23, and Brooklyn-born drummer David Getz, 26, who will soon add singer Janis Joplin, 22, to their group.
Popular songs: "Like a Rolling Stone" by Bob Dylan, whose song is recorded by Columbia Records at New York June 15; "Yesterday" and "Michelle" by John Lennon and Paul McCartney; "I Can't Explain" by the Who; "Sounds of Silence" by Newark, N.J.-born folk singer-songwriter Paul (Frederick) Simon and his Forest Hills, N.Y.-born partner Arthur Ira "Art" Garfunkel, both 24; "I Got You Babe" by Detroit-born Los Angeles singer-songwriter Sonny (originally Salvatore) Bono, 30, who has married sloe-eyed California-born singer Cher (Cherilyn Sirkisian), 21; "What the World Needs Now Is Love" by Burt Bacharach, lyrics by Hal David; "A Change Is Gonna Come" and "Shake" by the late Sam Cooke; "People Get Ready" by Curtis Mayfield; "Goodnight" by Roy Orbison; "In the Midnight Hour" by Wilson Pickett; "It's Not Unusual" by Gordon Mills; "The Shadow of Your Smile" by Johnny Mandel, lyrics by Paul Francis Webster (for the film The Sandpiper); "Lara's Theme (Somewhere My Love)" by Maurice Jarre, lyrics by Paul Francis Webster (for the film Dr. Zhivago); "She (He) Touched Me" by Milton Schafer, lyrics by Ira Levin (for the Broadway musical Drat! The Cat!); "Leave a Little Love" by Scottish singer Lulu (Marie McDonald McLaughlin Lawrie), 16; "Louvacao" by Brazilian composer-singer-instrumentalist Gilberto Gil, 23, who will become a leader of his country's Tropicália cultural movement; Celebrations for a Grey Day (album) by Brooklyn, N.Y.-born folksinger Richard Fariña, 28, and his California-born wife, Mimi (née Baez), 20; the Supremes record "Back in My Arms Again," "I Hear a Symphony," "Stop! In the Name of Love."
Songwriter and former disk jockey Alan Freed dies in poverty of uremic poisoning at Palm Springs, Calif., January 20 at age 43; bandleader Emil Coleman of a kidney infection at New York January 26 at age 72; jazz pianist Nat King Cole after cobalt treatment and surgery for removal of his left lung at Santa Monica February 15 at age 45; songwriter Harry Tierney of a heart attack at New York March 22 at age 74; orchestra leader George Melachrino at Kensington, England, June 18 at age 56; jazz musician Ernest Loring "Red" Nichols of a heart attack at Las Vegas June 28 at age 60; pianist-composer-bandleader Claude Thornhill of a heart attack at Caldwell, N.J., July 1 at age 56; composer Spencer Williams at Flushing, N.Y., July 14 at age 75; jazz pianist-composer Clarence Williams of cancer at New York November 6 at age 67; songwriter Dave Barbour of a hemorrhaged ulcer at Malibu December 1 at age 53.
The Miami Dolphins football team is founded under the ownership of trial lawyer Joseph Robbie, 49, who will hire Don Shula as head coach in 1970 and move the team in 1988 from the Orange Bowl to his own, privately financed, $115 million Joe Robbie Stadium.
Veteran college football coach Amos Alonzo Stagg dies of uremic poisoning at Stockton, Calif., March 17 at 102; Green Bay Packers founder and ex-coach Curly Lambeau at Sturgeon Bay, Wis., June 1 at age 67.
A British court convicts 10 professional soccer players of fixing matches.
Roy Emerson wins in men's singles at Wimbledon, Margaret Smith in women's singles; Manuel Santana, 27, (Spain) wins in men's singles at Forest Hills, Smith in women's singles.
Former world light-heavyweight boxing champion and fight promoter Freddie Mills dies of a self-inflicted gunshot wound at London July 25 at age 45.
Golfer Jack Nicklaus wins his second Masters Tournament.
The Spanish matador El Cordobés (Manuel Benítez Pérez), 29, fights in 111 corridas, breaking the season record of 109 set by Juan Belmonte in 1919 and killing 64 bulls in August alone, a record for one month. Illiterate until he served in the military in the late 1950s, he is crude in his technique but kisses bulls between the horns and otherwise astonishes crowds with his seeming indifference to danger, demonstrating a courage that earns him an estimated 35 million pesetas (about $600,000) for the month's work.
Barbados-born left-handed batsman and bowler Garfield Sobers, 29, succeeds Frank Worrell as captain of the West Indies cricket team, which defeats Australia and next year will defeat England 3 matches to 1. By the time he retires in 1974 he will have set a record of 365 not out, plus a Test match batting record of 8,032 runs and a record of 26 centuries (100 runs in a single innings).
The Los Angeles Dodgers win the World Series, defeating the Minnesota Twins 4 games to 3. Dodgers pitcher Sandy Koufax has announced that he would not play on Yom Kippur, the holiest day in the Jewish year; his teammate Don Drysdale pitched in his place and the Dodgers lost, as they did in the second game when Koufax did pitch, but they came back to win when Koufax pitched shutouts in the fifth and seventh games. Dodgers owner Branch Rickey dies after a heart attack at Columbus, Mo., December 9 at age 83.
Houston's $31.6 million AstroDome opens to provide the Astros and Oilers with a 44,500-seat air-conditioned stadium. The world's first domed stadium, it has been built mostly with money raised through Harris County bond issues promoted by Beaumont-born former Houston mayor Judge Roy (Mark) Hofheinz, now 54, who has consulted with Monsanto Industries of St. Louis about installing the stadium's natural grass with a new synthetic playing surface (see Astroturf, 1967).
The Benetton Group apparel company has its beginnings as Treviso-born Italian entrepreneur Luciano Benetton, 30, sells his bicycle for the wherewithal to buy a knitting machine and goes into business with his brothers Carlo and Gilberto, and his sister Giuliana. They implement a wool-softening process that Luciano has seen demonstrated in Scotland, contract out most of their manufacturing operations, will establish a franchise arrangement under whose management independent retailers will stock only Benetton clothing (which emphasizes brightly-colored knitwear), and in the next 25 years will use controversial, socially-conscious advertisements (developed with help from company creative director Oliviero Toscani) to build an enterprise of more than 7,000 retail outlets in some 120 countries.
Hanae Mori presents her first overseas collection, "East Meets West," at New York (see 1951); buyers from stores such as Bergdorf Goodman and Neiman Marcus order her dresses (see 1977).
Alberto-Culver introduces Alberto VO5 hairspray, builds a plant in Canada, has sales of $25 million after 10 years in business, and goes public. Unable to match the advertising budgets of larger competitors, cofounder Leonard H. Lavin will push the television networks to give up their policy of selling only 60-second commercials and let him buy 30-second spots. By the end of the century Alberto-Culver products will be selling at the rate of more than $2 billion per year.
Hair products company founder John H. Breck dies at Springfield, Mass., February 17 at age 87; cosmetics queen Helena Rubinstein at New York April 1 at age 94, having chased off two burglars from her Park Avenue triplex penthouse 2 years ago.
Most of the jewels stolen last October from the American Museum of Natural History at New York are recovered in January from a locker in Miami's Greyhound bus terminal. Jewel thief Allan D. Kuhn has turned state's evidence, his two accomplices have also agreed to cooperate with the police, all three men are sentenced April 6 to 3 years at the Rikers Island Correctional Facility, billionaire insurance man John D. MacArthur donates the $25,000 ransom demanded by "fences" holding the DeLong Star Ruby, the diamonds will never be recovered, and Jack "Murph the Surf" Murphy will wind up serving time for murder (he will not be released until December 1984).
Onetime New York gangster Owen Vincent "Owney" Madden dies of emphysema at Hot Springs, Ark., April 24 at age 73.
British police arrest Manchester typist Myra Hindley, 23, and her Scottish lover Ian Brady, 28, on charges of murder in October. They will be found guilty of having tortured and killed Lesley Ann Downey, 10, and John Kilbride, 12, whose agonies they photographed and taped, and Edward Evans, 17, whose body is found in their house (the remains of the children will be found buried on Saddleworth Moor in the Pennine Hills). Hindley will confess to two other murders in 1986, and the body of Pauline Read will be found in August 1987.
A Landmarks Preservation Act signed into law April 19 by New York's mayor Robert F. Wagner seeks to prevent demolition of buildings such as Penn Station (see 1963). Real estate interests have opposed the measure, saying it would lead to a decrease in city property values; many call it unconstitutional (see 1978).
A U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) is inaugurated September 9 pursuant to terms of a 1961 Omnibus Housing Act. President Johnson will name Washington, D.C.-born economist Robert C. (Clifton) Weaver, 57, to head the new department next year, and Weaver (who has headed the federal Housing and Home Finance Agency) will become the nation's first black cabinet member.
St. Louis's Gateway Arch commemorates the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. It was designed by the late Eero Saarinen for the city's waterfront.
New York's CBS building is completed by Eero Saarinen & Associates on the Avenue of the Americas (Sixth Avenue) at 52nd Street. The building's 38 floors are mainly supported from a central core.
The Salk Institute for Biological Studies moves into a new La Jolla, Calif., building designed by Louis I. Kahn.
Architect Le Corbusier dies at Roquebrune-Cap Martin, France, August 27 at age 77 and receives a state funeral at Paris with a eulogy delivered by André Maurois in the courtyard of the Louvre.
Congress appropriates funds to remove U.S. highway billboards at the urging of Claudia Alta "Lady Bird" Johnson (née Taylor), 53, wife of the president. All billboards on sections of interstate and primary highways not zoned "commercial or industrial" are to be razed by July 1, 1970, and states are to pass conforming laws and prepare laws. The "Lady Bird Bill" will not begin to take effect until 1970, when the Senate will vote unanimously to apply $100 million of the $5.5 billion per year highway trust fund to compensate billboard companies for removal of their signs.
Hurricane Betsy roars across Florida September 8 with winds of up to 145 miles per hour and moves into Louisiana and Mississippi, killing 23 people in 15 days.
A major drought in the northeastern United States forces New York City to turn off air-conditioning in sealed skyscrapers in order to conserve water. City fountains are turned off, lawn watering is forbidden, and signs appear reading, "Save water: shower with a friend."
Calico scallops come into use as a seafood with promising commercial possibilities as equipment is developed to process the deep-water mollusks, discovered off North Carolina and Florida in the 1950s. Fishing for calico scallops will become a major industry at Cape Canaveral, Fla., off the North Carolina coast, and in the Gulf of Mexico, with catches averaging 12 million pounds per year between 1984 and 1994.
The Arkansas catfish industry has its beginnings as a few farmers raise the fish to supplement income from field crops. By 1970 they will be harvesting 5.7 million pounds, and as farmers in other states get into catfish raising the harvest will increase to 46.5 million pounds by 1975, 360.4 million by 1990, and 459 million by 1993. Whereas wild catfish will be scorned as food for the poor, commercially-grown catfish will be given scientifically-devised feed and raised in water whose quality is monitored to avoid muddy flavors. Refrigeration will assure delivery of firm-fleshed fresh fish to markets all over the country.
The Anadramous Fish Conservation Act signed into law by President Johnson October 30 authorizes the secretaries of the interior and commerce to enter into cooperative agreements designed to conserve alewives, river sturgeon, salmon, shad, and striped bass that swim upriver to spawn (see Maine, 1948). P.L. 89-304 appropriates $25-million for the 5-year program.
Dwarf Indica rice with higher per-acre yields is introduced in India, the Philippines, and other Asian nations (see 1964; 1968; Taiwan, 1955).
U.S. farms fall in number to 3.5 million, down from 6.84 million in 1935, 3.7 million in 1959.
The Rock Cornish game hen created by Arkansas chicken processor Donald John Tyson, 35, comes to market in 28 to 30 days (versus 42 or more for regular chickens).
Former U.S. secretary of agriculture (and vice president) Henry A. Wallace dies of lateral sclerosis at Danbury, Conn., November 18 at age 77. Some U.S. corn farmers now get 120 bushels of corn per acre (the average is over 85, up from 22.8 in 1933) and produce 9 billion bushels per year, with 85 percent of it used to feed hogs, chickens, and cattle.
Pakistan and much of India suffer widespread starvation as monsoon rains fail and crops wither in a drought of unprecedented proportions.
"There is a global food catastrophe building up on the horizon which threatens to engulf the free world and the communist world alike," says Thomas Ware of the Freedom from Hunger Foundation.
Soviet Russia suffers another crop failure as it did in 1963 and is forced to pay in gold for wheat from Australia and Canada. Canada has made a sale to the Russians in January at prices below the prevailing world level, triggering a price war between Ottawa and Washington in world markets. Moscow is discouraged from buying U.S. wheat by a presidential requirement that half of all shipments be made in U.S. vessels (at high cost) and by a longshoremen's threat not to load any grain for shipment to communist Russia.
Dry milk sent abroad by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in aid programs is fortified with vitamins A and D at the insistence of the U.S. Public Health Service, but milk for domestic poverty programs (as in Appalachia) is not fortified.
Half of all Americans enjoy "good" diets, up from fewer than one fourth in 1943, according to a new study.
Clifton, N.J., heroin addict and food faddist Beth Ann Simon dies in the autumn at age 24, having dwindled away to just over 70 pounds on a "macrobotic" diet consisting solely of brown rice sprinkled with Gomashio (four parts sesame seeds to one part sea salt) eaten slowly with a little green tea. Disclaimed by Zen Buddhists, the diet enjoys support from writer George Ohsawa, whose foundation is raided by Food and Drug Administration agents. They seize literature and illegally labeled foods but cultists in the youth underground extol Ohsawa's diets and open "macrobiotic" diets. Convinced that the diet removed "poisons" from her body and soul, Mrs. Simon lost 20 pounds in her first month, persisted, developed scurvy, and died after 9 months from emaciation due to starvation. A Japanese-born Parisian, Ohsawa (originally Nyoti Sakurazawa) will himself die next year at age 73, and his followers will question whether Mrs. Simon really died or just came close to death, whether she lived in New Jersey or in New York's Greenwich Village, and whether she followed a "correct" macrobiotic diet.
Thiamine (vitamin B1) discoverer Robert R. Williams dies at Summit, N.J., October 2 at age 79.
Americans on average pay 18.5 percent of their total income for food, down from 24.4 percent in 1955. It is the lowest percentage in history and lower than any other country in the world.
The Pillsbury Doughboy mascot introduced by the Minneapolis-based flour miller promotes its oven-ready, "Poppin' Fresh," Crescent Dinner Rolls.
General Foods introduces Shake 'n Bake in parts of New York and Ohio in February (it will go into national distribution early next year). The first complete seasoned coating mix, it comes in two versions, one for preparing chicken, the other for preparing fish. Other versions will appear later in this decade.
Cool Whip is introduced by General Foods, whose scientists have come up with a whipped-cream-like product that costs less than whipped cream, comes in a resealable white plastic storage container, keeps longer (2 weeks in a refrigerator, up to 1 year in a freezer), does not have to be whipped, and has fewer calories.
Cranapple fruit juice is introduced by Ocean Spray Cranberries (see 1959).
Tang is introduced on a national basis in March by General Foods, whose scientists have spent a decade perfecting the fruit-flavored breakfast drink. It will eventually contain some orange-juice solids but initially consists only of sugar, citric acid (for tartness), gum arabic, natural orange flavor, sodim carboxymethylcellulose, calcium phospate (to prevent caking), vitamin C, hydrogenated vegetable oil, vitamin A, artificial color, and the preservative BHA. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) selects Tang for the galley of Gemini astronauts in space, and it will be in the galley of the Apollo mission that lands on the moon in July 1969.
Diet Pepsi is introduced by Pepsi-Cola Co. (see Tab, 1963; Diet Coke, 1982). Pepsi president Donald M. Kendall, 44, engineers a merger with Frito-Lay, Inc., to create Pepsico, Inc. (see 1959; 1961).
Gatorade has its beginnings in a lemon-lime drink created by University of Florida kidney specialist Robert Cade, 38, who has analyzed the body liquids lost in perspiration by football players, specifically the "Gators" of the University of Florida. Independent tests will fail to prove that it has significant advantages over plain water except where an athlete has lost six pounds of water through perspiration.
Home-delivered milk accounts for 25 percent of U.S. milk sales, down from more than 50 percent before World War II. The figure will be 15 percent by 1975.
The Subway fast-food restaurant franchise has its beginning in Pete's Super Submarine shop, opened August 28 at Bridgeport, Conn., by local high school graduate Fred DeLuca, 17, with a $1,000 loan from nuclear physicist Peter Buck, a family friend. DeLuca has been working at a hardware store to earn money for college tuition, Buck has suggested at a backyard barbecue that he and young Fred open a submarine sandwich shop in partnership with a goal of opening 31 more in the next 10 years. DeLuca will obtain a bachelor's degree in psychology in 1971, he will begin franchising the name in 1974, and by 2005 there will be 24,219 Subways in 81 countries.
New York's Stork Club closes October 4 after more than 30 years of providing food, drink, and dance music to café society (see 1933). Labor-management problems have plagued it in recent years, host Sherman Billingsley will die of a heart attack at age 66 in exactly 1 year, and the building will be razed in 1967 to make way for a vest-pocket park funded by CBS chairman William S. Paley.
The new U.S. Immigration Act signed into law October 3 will increase the number of Chinese restaurants and Chinese kitchen help as Hunan and Sichuan (Szechuan) cuisines gain popularity to augment the traditional Cantonese dishes that have been corrupted into "Chinese-American" food (Chaozhou, Fujian, Hakka, Hangzhou, Shandong, and Zhejiang cuisines will arrive by the 1990s). Only 102 Chinese have entered the country legally from the People's Republic since 1949; hereafter, at least 5,000 will enter each month.
The World Health Organization finds that family planning advice is welcome where such advice was protested in 1962.
Oxfam decides to support family planning projects as well as the programs for famine relief and food production that it has backed since its founding in 1942.
Connecticut's 1879 law prohibiting sale of birth control devices even to married persons is unconstitutional, the Supreme Court rules June 7 in Griswold v. Connecticut. The case involved a New Haven clinic run by leaders of the state's Planned Parenthood League, and it involves also the right to privacy. Writing for the majority in the 7-to-2 decision, Justice William O. Douglas observes that there is a "zone of privacy" within a "penumbra" created by fundamental constitutional guarantees, including the First, Fourth, and Fifth Amendments.
The United States has 700 public birth control clinics, with 33 states giving, or about to give, tax support to birth control (see 1964).
U.S. live births total some 300,000 less than in the peak year of 1957 and in some months are at a rate lower than in 1939.
A new immigration act signed into law by President Johnson October 3 at the Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor abolishes the national origins quota system of 1924 that was reiterated in 1952; it permits entry by any alien who meets qualifications of education and skill, regardless of race or country of origin, provided that such entry will not jeopardize the job of an American. The act imposes an overall limit of 120,000 visas per year for Western Hemisphere countries and 170,000 per year for the rest of the world, but immediate relatives of U.S. citizens may enter without regard to these limits.
The population of the world reaches 3.3 billion, up from just over 3 billion in 1960. Women in Latin America bear an average of more than six children each, but Colombia establishes a family-planning organization under the name Profamilia, using radio advertising to acquaint women with its programs and training volunteers to go door-to-door offering contraceptives and information (see Mexico, 1974).
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