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`Abdu'l-Bahá

 
Biography: Abdul-Baha
 
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One of the founders and shapers of the Baha'i faith, Persian-born religious leader Abdul-Baha (1844-1921) perpetuated the teachings of his father, the Baha'u'llah, by becoming the community's third religious leader. Essential to Abdul-Baha's work as superintendent of the faith was the dissemination of the Baha'i message of world peace, justice, racial and gender equality, and the unity of all people. He composed a history of Baha'ism and spread its tenets throughout the Middle East, India, Burma, western Europe, the Americas, South Africa, and the Pacific rim.

Named Abbas Effendi in infancy, Abdul-Baha was marked from the beginning for a religious career. He was born on May 23, 1844, in Tehran, Persia (now Iran) on the day that Mirza Ali Muhammed of Shiraz, Persia, the self-proclaimed Bab (The Gate) and successor to Muhammed, launched the Baha'i faith. As the eldest son of Navvab and Mirza Husayn Ali, Abdul-Baha was prepared for leadership. He received a suitable education and encouragement to advance Baha'ism and to carry its beliefs to people beyond the Middle East.

After the Bab's execution in 1850 and the murder of some 20,000 followers, Abdul-Baha, then six years old, witnessed social instability and the persecution of his father and other religious leaders by Shi'ite Muslims. A mob over-ran and pillaged the family home, forcing them into poverty. He cringed to see his father bound hand, foot, and neck in irons and imprisoned in Tehran's infamous Black Hole. During Baha'u'llah's absence, Abdul-Baha recognized himself as the messiah prophesied in the Bab's covenant book. To prepare himself for a religious life, Abdul-Baha meditated daily, memorized the Bab's writings, and visited the village mosque to discuss theology with experts.

Exile in Baghdad

After the liberation of the Baha'u'llah, nine-year-old Abdul-Baha accompanied his father and seventy other devout Baha'ists into exile in Baghdad, Arabia, where they initiated a thriving Babi community. As he matured and grew strong, he became his father's aide and protector against the threats of detractors and the demands of visitors and pilgrims. After the sect's forced removal to Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey), the boy's support of the family left the father free to develop a comprehensive teaching based on social and moral ethics. Tall, erect, and blessed with a sharp profile, piercing eyes, and shoulder-length black hair, Abdul-Baha dressed simply in robe and white turban, yet made a memorable impression on others. According to Edward Granville Browne, an English physician and orientalist from Gloucestershire: "One more eloquent of speech, more ready of argument, more apt of illustration, more intimately acquainted with the sacred books of the Jews, the Christians, the Muhammadans, could, I should think, scarcely be found."

Began a Holy Life

At the age of 22, Abdul-Baha formally proclaimed himself the third religious leader of the Baha'is as well as the slave of Baha, interpreter of divine revelation, and the promised successor described in the Bab's covenant. To demonstrate the correct lifestyle of his sect, Abdul-Baha limited his diet to two meals per day and shared his food and belongings with the needy. In 1867, political shifts forced him and other Baha'is out of the Middle East. He left Constantinople and traveled northwest to Adrianople (modern Edirne, Turkey).

As modern Europe destabilized power bases along the eastern Mediterranean, the Ottoman Turks imprisoned Abdul-Baha and his holy band at Acca (now Akko, Israel) in Ottoman Syria on the northern horn of the Bay of Haifa. To curtail the expansion of Baha'ism, his captors restricted inmate communication with the outside world and spied on them in fear of the movement's political intent. The prisoners - men, women, and children - suffered malaria, typhoid and dysentery. Lacking medicines, Abdul-Baha nursed the sick with broth before he too fell ill with dysentery, which kept him from comforting his followers for a month.

Spokesman for Baha'i

Abdul-Baha expanded his ministry from one-on-one teaching and counseling to administering religious affairs and formulating the sect's philosophy. In 1886, he compiled the first history of the Baha'i movement, later published with his collected papers. After the Baha'u'llah's death in May 1892, just as the Bab planned, the succession passed to Abdul-Baha. As characterized by his biographer, Isabel Fraser Chamberlain, author of Abdul Baha on Baha'i Philosophy, he continued the work of Baha'i's first two patriarchs by reviving his father's teachings, exemplifying divine law, and establishing a new kingdom on earth. A half-brother, Mirza Mohammad Ali, and other kin stirred a revolt against Abdul-Baha. To justify his ouster, they accused him of overreaching the Bab's covenant and Baha'u'llah's intent for him.

Prison and Release

In 1904 and 1907, as power struggles shook the established order in the eastern Mediterranean, government commissioners grew suspicious of organized groups and inquired into the source and nature of Abdul-Baha's influence. Hostile agents jailed him at a Turkish prison, where he continued to receive representatives of all faiths and races. During his imprisonment, he married Munirih Khanum, mother of their four daughters. Fluent in Persian, Arabic, and Turkish, he carried on an enormous correspondence of some 27,000 letters to philosophers, religious leaders, and pilgrims from all parts of the globe. Despite his personal plight and the danger to his family, he spread faith, cheer, and hope to the hopeless.

Risking execution by the sultan, Abdul-Baha refused to plead his innocence before a corrupt investigating committee or to attempt escape by an Italian ship that his sympathizers arranged for him in the harbor. In September 1908, the Turkish revolution resulted in the overthrow of the Ottoman Empire and the freeing of political and religious prisoners. Immediately, Abdul-Baha left his cell and made a formal gesture to the demoralized Baha'is. He finished building the shrine of the Bab above Haifa on Mount Carmel and buried the remains of the founder in hallowed ground.

A Mission to the World

At the newly established Baha'i headquarters in Acre, Palestine, Abdul-Baha continued composing sacred writings, now collected in two compendia, Baha'i Scriptures and Baha'i World Faith. When his daughters matured, they interpreted and transcribed his writings to free him for more important community missions to the oppressed, sick, and poor. As sect leader, he promoted the unity of world religions and the universalism of Baha'i. He summarized ten principles of the faith: (1) the independent search for truth; (2) the unity of all people; (3) the harmony of religion and science; (4) the equality of female and male; (5) the compulsory education for all; (6) the establishment of one global language; (7) the creation of a world court; (8) harmonious relations of all people in work and love; (9) the condemnation of prejudice; and (10) the abolition of poverty and extreme wealth.

Resettled in Alexandria, Egypt, Abdul-Baha received all comers to his center and, in August 1911, visited France and England. He dispatched reformers to the United States, which he toured in April 1912. In Wilmette, Illinois, he dedicated the site of a Baha'i temple, the first such structure in the Western Hemisphere. He next championed peace, women's rights, racial equality, and social justice in Great Britain, France, Germany, Austria, and Hungary.

A Life Dedicated to Peace

In the last years of his service to Baha'i, Abdul-Baha returned to Palestine and resumed control of his headquarters at Haifa. During World War I, he nurtured the sick and helped to avert famine by stockpiling adequate stores of wheat. Because travel was hampered by warships in sea lanes, he remained at his office to outline future goals for the Baha'i community in Tablets of the Divine Plan Revealed by Abdul-Baha to the North American Baha'is. After the British army liberated Palestine, in April 1920, an agent of the King of England knighted him for promoting peace in the Middle East.

Still visiting the aged and struggling underclass to the last, Abdul-Baha died peacefully in his sleep on November 28, 1921. Amid a throng of mourners, his body was interred in the northern rooms of the Bab's tomb on Mount Carmel. The mission begun by the Bab and the Baha'u'llah passed from Abdul-Baha to his eldest grandson, Shoghi Effendi Rabbani, the next guardian of the Baha'i faith. By 1995, with five million members in 232 countries, Baha'i had become the world's second most widely spread religion.

Books

Almanac of Famous People, 7th ed. Gale Group, 2001.

Chamberlain, Isabel Fraser, Abdul Baha on Divine Philosophy, Tudor Press, 1918.

The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, edited by John Bowker, Oxford University Press, 1997.

Religious Leaders of America, 2nd ed. Gale Group, 1999.

A Sourcebook for Earth's Community of Religions, edited by Joel Beversluis, CoNexus Press, 1995.

Periodicals

Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, June 1998.

Online

"Abdul-Baha," http://www.bahai.lu/Neue%20Seiten/abdbaha.html (October 23, 2001).

"Abdul-Baha," The Baha'i World,http://www.bahai.org/article-1-2-0-7.html.

"Abdul-Baha," http://www.dornochbahaigroup.freeserve.co.uk/abdulbaha.htm.

"Abdul-Baha," The History of the Baha'i Faith,http://www.northill.demon.co.uk/bahai/intro8.htm#abd.

"Abdul-Baha, Baha'i Faith," http://www.bahainyc.org/abdul.html.

"The Baha'i Faith, http://www.bahai.cc/Introduction/introduction.html.

Biography Resource Center,http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/BioRC (October 22, 2001).

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Wikipedia: `Abdu'l-Bahá
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`Abdu'l-Bahá

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‘Abdu’l-Bahá (عبد البهاء‎) (23 May 1844 - 28 November 1921), born `Abbás Effendí, was the eldest son of Bahá'u'lláh,[1] the founder of the Bahá'í Faith. In 1892, `Abdu'l-Bahá was appointed in his father's will to be his successor and head of the Bahá'í Faith.[2][3]

His journeys to the West, and his Tablets of the Divine Plan spread the Bahá'í message beyond its middle-eastern roots, and his Will and Testament laid the foundation for the current Bahá'í administrative order.

`Abdu'l-Bahá's given name was `Abbás Effendí, but he preferred the title of `Abdu'l-Bahá (servant of the glory of God). He is commonly referred to in Bahá'í texts as "The Master", and received the title of KBE after his personal storage of grain was used to relieve famine in Palestine following World War I.

Contents

Background

Early life

`Abdu'l-Bahá was born in Tehran, Persia on 23 May 1844 (5th of Jamadiyu'l-Avval, 1260 AH),[4] the eldest son of Bahá'u'lláh and Navváb. He was born on the very same night on which the Báb declared his mission.[5] During his youth, `Abdu'l-Bahá was shaped by his father's station as a prominent member of the Bábís. One event that affected `Abdu'l-Bahá greatly during his childhood was the imprisonment of his father when `Abdu'l-Bahá was nine years old; the imprisonment led to his family being reduced to poverty and being attacked in the streets by other children. Esslemont records that "A mob sacked their house, and the family were stripped of their possessions and left in destitution."[5]

Years in exile with his father

Bahá'u'lláh was eventually released from prison but ordered into exile, and `Abdu'l-Bahá joined his father on the journey to Baghdad in the winter of 1853.[6] During the journey `Abdu'l-Bahá suffered from frost-bite. When Bahá'u'lláh secretly secluded himself in the mountains of Sulaymaniyah in 1854, `Abdu'l-Bahá was no more than ten years old and grieved over his separation from his father.[7] During his years in Baghdad, `Abdu'l-Bahá spent much of his time reading the writings of the Báb, wrote commentary on Qur'anic verses and conversed with the learned of the city.[7] In 1856, when news of a personage in the mountains of Kurdistan arrived, `Abdu'l-Baha along with some family and friends set out to ask Bahá'u'lláh to return to Baghdad.[8]

In 1863 Bahá'u'lláh was summoned to Constantinople (Istanbul), and thus his whole family including `Abdu'l-Bahá, then nineteen, accompanied him on his 110-day journey.[9] `Abdu'l-Baha followed his father through the further exile to Adrianople (Edirne), and finally Akká, Palestine (now Acre, Israel). During this time he increasingly assumed the role of Bahá'u'lláh's chief steward.[10]

On arrival in Akka, due to the unsanitary state of its barracks, many of the Bahá'ís fell sick, and `Abdu'l-Bahá tended the sick. Furthermore, the inhabitants of Akka were told that the new prisoners were enemies of the state, of God and his religion, and that association with them was strictly forbidden, and thus the Bahá'ís were faced with hostile officials, and scornful inhabitants and `Abdu'l-Bahá shielded his father of much of these attacks.[11] Over time, he gradually took over responsibility for the relationships between the small Bahá'i exile community and the outside world. It was through his interaction with the people of Akka that, according to the Bahá'ís, they recognized the innocence of the Bahá'ís, and thus the conditions of imprisonment were eased. Eventually, Bahá'u'lláh was allowed to leave the city and visit nearby places.[12]

Family life

On March 8, 1873 twenty-eight year old ‘Abdu’l-Bahá married Fátimih Nahrí of Isfahán (1848-1938).[13] Fátimih, renamed Munírih Khánum by Bahá’u’lláh, was twenty-four years of age.[14] She was the daughter of eminent Bábí-Bahá’í; Áqá Muhammad-‘Alí Nahrí of Isfahan, himself from an aristocratic family the Nahrí’s.[15] Munírih Khánum was bought to ‘Akká when both Bahá’u’lláh and Ásíyih Khánum showed an interest in her becoming the wife of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá.[16] After a pilgramige to the house of the Báb in Shiraz, and a hajj to Mecca requested by Bahá’u’lláh she arrived in ‘Akká.[17]

The couple were betrothed for five months until their marriage. It was a happy marriage resulting in nine children.[18] Unfortunately, only four of these children survived into adulthood.[19] Díyá’íyyih Khánum (mother of Shoghi Effendi), Túbá Khánum, Rúhá Khánum and Munavvar Khánum.[20]

Early years of his ministry

`Abdu'l-Bahá

After Bahá'u'lláh died on 29 May 1892, the Will and Testament of Bahá'u'lláh named `Abdu'l-Bahá as Centre of the Covenant, successor and interpreter of Bahá'u'lláh's writings.[2] In the Will and Testament `Abdu'l-Bahá's half-brother, Muhammad `Alí, was mentioned by name as being subordinate to `Abdu'l-Bahá. Muhammad `Alí became jealous of his half-brother and set out to establish authority for himself as an alternative leader with the support of his brothers Badi'u'llah and Diya'u'llah.[4] He began correspondence with Bahá'ís in Iran, initially in secret, casting doubts in others' minds about `Abdu'l-Bahá.[21] While most Bahá'ís followed `Abdu'l-Bahá, a handful followed Muhammad `Alí including such leaders as Mirza Javad and Ibrahim Khayru'llah, the famous Bahá'í missionary to America.[22]

Muhammad `Alí and Mirza Javad began to openly accuse `Abdu'l-Bahá of taking on too much authority, suggesting that he believed himself to be a Manifestation of God, equal in status to Bahá'u'lláh.[23] It was at this time that `Abdu'l-Bahá, in order to provide proof of the falsity of the accusations levelled against him, in tablets to the West, stated that he was to be known as "`Abdu'l-Bahá" an Arabic phrase meaning the Servant of Bahá to make it clear that he was not a Manifestation of God, and that his station was only servitude.[24]

It was as a result of this breakdown in relations between the half-brothers that when `Abdu'l-Bahá died, instead of appointing Muhammad `Alí, he left a Will and Testament that set up the framework of an administration. The two highest institutions were the Universal House of Justice, and the Guardianship, for which he appointed Shoghi Effendi as the Guardian.[2]

By the end of 1898, Western pilgrims started coming to Akka on pilgrimage to visit `Abdu'l-Bahá; this group of pilgrims, including Phoebe Hearst, was the first time that Bahá'ís raised up in the West had met `Abdu'l-Bahá.[25] During the next decade `Abdu'l-Bahá would be in constant communication with Bahá'ís around the world, helping them to teach the religion; the group included May Ellis Bolles in Paris, Englishman Thomas Breakwell, American Herbert Hopper, French Hippolyte Dreyfus, Susan Moody, Lua Getsinger, and American Laura Clifford Barney.[26] It was Laura Clifford Barney who, by asking questions of `Abdu'l-Bahá over many years and many visits to Haifa, compiled what later became the book Some Answered Questions.[27]

During the final years of the 19th century, while `Abdu'l-Bahá was still officially a prisoner and confined to `Akka, he organized the transfer of the remains of the Báb from Iran to Palestine. He then organized the purchase of land on Mount Carmel that Bahá'u'lláh had instructed should be used to lay the remains of the Báb, and organized for the construction of the Shrine of the Báb. This process took another 10 years.[28]

With the increase of pilgrims visiting `Abdu'l-Bahá, Muhammad `Alí worked with the Ottoman authorities to re-introduce stricter terms on `Abdu'l-Bahá's imprisonment in August 1901.[2][29] By 1902, however, due to the Governor of `Akka being supportive of `Abdu'l-Bahá, the situation was greatly eased; while pilgrims were able to once again visit `Abdu'l-Bahá, he was confined to the city.[29] In February 1903, two followers of Muhammad `Alí, including Badi'u'llah and Siyyid `Aliy-i-Afnan, broke with Muhammad `Ali and wrote books and letters giving details of Muhammad `Ali's plots and noting that what was circulating about `Abdu'l-Bahá was fabrication.[30][31]

From 1902-1904, in addition to the building of the Shrine of the Báb that `Abdu'l-Bahá was directing, he started to put into execution two different projects; the restoration of the House of the Báb in Shiraz, Iran and the construction of the first Bahá'í House of Worship in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan.[32] `Abdu'l-Bahá asked Aqa Mirza Aqa to coordinate the work so that the house of the Báb would be restored to the state that it was at the time of the Báb's declaration to Mulla Husayn in 1844;[32] he also entrusted the work on the House of Worship to Vakil-u'd-Dawlih.[33]

Also in 1904, Muhammad `Ali continued his accusations against `Abdu'l-Bahá which caused an Ottoman commission summoning `Abdu'l-Bahá to answer the accusations levelled against him. During the inquiry the charges against him were dropped and the inquiry collapsed.[34][35] The next few years in `Akka were relatively free of pressures and pilgrims were able to come and visit `Abdu'l-Bahá. Also, by 1909 the mausoleum of the shrine of the Báb was completed.[33]

Journeys to the West

`Abdu'l-Bahá, during his trip to the United States

The 1908 Young Turks revolution freed all political prisoners in the Ottoman Empire, and `Abdu'l-Bahá was freed from imprisonment. His first action after his freedom was to visit the Shrine of Bahá'u'lláh in Bahji.[36] While `Abdu'l-Bahá continued to live in `Akka immediately following the revolution, he soon moved to live in Haifa near the Shrine of the Báb.[36] In 1910, with the freedom to leave the country, he embarked on a three year journey to Egypt, Europe, and North America, spreading the Bahá'í message.[2]

From August to December 1911, `Abdu'l-Bahá visited cities in Europe, including London, Bristol, and Paris. The purpose of these trips was to support the Bahá'í communities in the west and to further spread his father's teachings.[37]

In the following year, he undertook a much more extensive journey to the United States and Canada to once again spread his father's teachings. He arrived in New York City on 11 April 1912, after declining an offer of passage on the RMS Titanic, telling the Bahá'í believers, instead, to "Donate this to charity." He instead travelled on a slower craft, the S.S. Cedric, and cited preference of a longer sea journey as the reason.[38] Upon arriving in New York, he arranged a private meeting with the survivors of the ill-fated Titanic, who asked him if he knew the Titanic's ultimate destruction would occur, to which, 'Abdu'l-Baha replied, "God gives man feelings of intuition". While he spent most of his time in New York, he visited Chicago, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Washington, D.C., Boston and Philadelphia. In August of the same year he started a more extensive journey to places including New Hampshire, the Green Acre school in Maine, and Montreal (his only visit to Canada). He then travelled west to Minneapolis, San Francisco, Stanford, and Los Angeles before starting to return east at the end of October. On 5 December 1912 he set sail back to Europe.[37]

During his visit to North America he visited many missions, churches, and groups, as well as having scores of meetings in Bahá'ís' homes, and offering innumerable personal meetings with hundreds of people.[39] During his talks he proclaimed Bahá'í principles such as the unity of God, unity of the religions, onesness of humanity, equality of women and men, world peace and economic justice.[39] He also insisted that all his meetings be open to all races.[39]

His visit and talks were the subject of hundreds of newspaper articles.[39] In Boston newspaper reporters asked `Abdu'l-Bahá why he had come to America, and he stated that he had come to participate in conferences on peace and that just giving warning messages is not enough.[40] `Abdu'l-Bahá's visit to Montreal provided notable newspaper coverage; on the night of his arrival the editor of the Montreal Daily Star met with him and that newspaper along with The Montreal Gazette, Montreal Standard, Le Devoir and La Presse among others reported on `Abdu'l-Bahá's activities.[41][42] The headlines in those papers included "Persian Teacher to Preach Peace", "Racialism Wrong, Says Eastern Sage, Strife and War Caused by Religious and National Prejudices", and "Apostle of Peace Meets Socialists, Abdul Baha's Novel Scheme for Distribution of Surplus Wealth."[42] The Montreal Standard, which was distributed across Canada, took so much interest that it republished the articles a week later; the Gazette published six articles and Montreal's largest French language newspaper published two articles about him.[41] His 1912 visit to Montreal also inspired humourist Stephen Leacock to parody him in his bestselling 1914 book Arcadian Adventures with the Idle Rich.[43] In Chicago one newspaper headline included "His Holiness Visits Us, Not Pius X but A. Baha,"[42] and `Abdu'l-Bahá's visit to California was reported in the Palo Altan.[44]

Back in Europe, he visited London, Paris (where he stayed for two months), Stuttgart, Budapest, and Vienna. Finally on 12 June 1913 he returned to Egypt, where he stayed for six months before returning to Haifa.[37]

Final years

`Abdu'l-Bahá on Mount Carmel with pilgrims in 1919

During World War I `Abdu'l-Bahá stayed in Palestine, under the continued threat of Allied bombardment and threats from the Turkish commander. As the war ended, the British Mandate over Palestine brought relative security to `Abdu'l-Bahá. During his final year, a growing number of visitors and pilgrims came to see him in Haifa.[45]

On 27 April 1920, he was awarded a knighthood (KBE) by the British Mandate of Palestine for his humanitarian efforts during the war.[2] `Abdu'l-Bahá died on 28 November 1921 (27th of Rabi'u'l-Avval, 1340 AH.)[4] On his funeral, Esslemont notes:

"... a funeral the like of which Haifa, nay Palestine itself, had surely never seen... so deep was the feeling that brought so many thousands of mourners together, representative of so many religions, races and tongues."[46]

He is buried in the front room of the Shrine of the Báb on Mount Carmel. Plans are in place to one day build a Shrine of `Abdu'l-Bahá. In his Will and Testament he appointed his grandson Shoghi Effendi Rabbani as the Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith.[2]

Works

The total estimated number of tablets that `Abdu'l-Bahá wrote are over 27,000, of which only a fraction have been translated into English.[47] His works fall into two groups including first his direct writings and second his lectures and speeches as noted by others.[2] The first group includes the Secret of Divine Civilization written before 1875, A Traveller's Narrative written around 1886, the Resāla-ye sīāsīya or Sermon on the Art of Governance written in 1893, the Memorials of the Faithful, and a large number of tablets written to various people;[2] including various Western intellectuals such as August Forel which has been translated and published as the Tablet to Auguste-Henri Forel. The Secret of Divine Civilization and the Sermon on the Art of Governance were widely circulated anonymously.

The second group includes Some Answered Questions, which is an English translation of a series of table talks with Laura Barney, and Paris Talks, `Abdu'l-Baha in London and Promulgation of Universal Peace which are respectively addresses given by `Abdu'l-Bahá in Paris, London and the United States.[2]

The following is a list of some of `Abdu'l-Bahá's many books, tablets, and talks:

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 2
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Bausani, Alessandro (1989). "‘Abd-al-Bahā’ : Life and work". Encyclopædia Iranica. http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v1f1/v1f1a064.html. 
  3. ^ Smith, Peter (2000). "`Abdu'l-Bahá". A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp. 14-20. ISBN 1-85168-184-1. http://www.oneworld-publications.com/pdfs/Encyclo_Baha.pdf. 
  4. ^ a b c Muhammad Qazvini (1949). "`Abdu'l-Bahá Meeting with Two Prominent Iranians". http://bahai-library.com/articles/qazvini.html. Retrieved on 2007-09-05. 
  5. ^ a b Esslemont, J.E. (1980). Bahá'u'lláh and the New Era (5th ed. ed.). Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. pp. 51–64. ISBN 0877431604. http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/je/BNE/. 
  6. ^ Balyuzi 2001, p. 12
  7. ^ a b Balyuzi 2001, p. 14
  8. ^ Balyuzi 2001, p. 15
  9. ^ Balyuzi 2001, p. 17
  10. ^ Balyuzi 2001, pp. 22-23
  11. ^ Balyuzi 2001, p. 25
  12. ^ Balyuzi 2001, pp. 33-43
  13. ^ Peter Smith, An Introduction to the Baha'i Faith pp.35
  14. ^ H.M. Balyuzi, Baha'u'llah - The King of Glory, p. 341
  15. ^ Moojan Momen- Memoirs and Letters, p. xii
  16. ^ Dr. J.E. Esslemont, Baha'u'llah and the New Era, p. 54
  17. ^ Lady Blomfield, The Chosen Highway, p. 75
  18. ^ Myron H Phleps, The Master in 'Akka p. 112
  19. ^ Phelps p. 118
  20. ^ Juliet Thompson, The Diary of Juliet Thompson
  21. ^ Balyuzi 2001, p. 53
  22. ^ Browne 1918, p. 145
  23. ^ Browne 1918, p. 77
  24. ^ Balyuzi 2001, p. 60
  25. ^ Balyuzi 2001, p. 69
  26. ^ Balyuzi 2001, pp. 72-96
  27. ^ Balyuzi 2001, p. 82
  28. ^ Balyuzi 2001, pp. 90-93
  29. ^ a b Balyuzi 2001, p. 94-95
  30. ^ Balyuzi 2001, p. 102
  31. ^ *Afroukhteh, Youness (2003) [1952]. Memories of Nine Years in 'Akká. Oxford, UK: George Ronald. pp. 166. ISBN 0853984778. 
  32. ^ a b Balyuzi 2001, p. 107
  33. ^ a b Balyuzi 2001, p. 109
  34. ^ Balyuzi 2001, pp. 111-113
  35. ^ Momen, p. 320-323.
  36. ^ a b Balyuzi 2001, p. 131
  37. ^ a b c Balyuzi 2001, pp. 159-397
  38. ^ Balyuzi 2001, p. 171
  39. ^ a b c d Gallagher & Ashcraft 2006, p. 196
  40. ^ Balyuzi 2001, p. 232
  41. ^ a b Van den Hoonaard 1996, pp. 56-58
  42. ^ a b c Balyuzi 2001, p. 256
  43. ^ Wagner, Ralph D. Yahi-Bahi Society of Mrs. Resselyer-Brown, The. Accessed on: 19-05-2008
  44. ^ Balyuzi 2001, p. 313
  45. ^ Balyuzi 2001, pp. 400-431
  46. ^ Esslemont, p 77, quoting 'The Passing of `Abdu'l-Bahá", by Lady Blomfield and Shoghi Effendi, pp 11, 12.
  47. ^ Universal House of Justice (2002-09). "Numbers and Classifications of Sacred Writings texts". http://bahai-library.com/?file=uhj_numbers_sacred_writings. Retrieved on 2007-03-20. 
  48. ^ http://www.h-net.org/~bahai/trans/vol7/govern.htm

References

  • Afroukhteh, Youness (2003) [1952]. Memories of Nine Years in 'Akká. Oxford, UK: George Ronald. ISBN 0853984778. 
  • Balyuzi, H.M. (2001), `Abdu'l-Bahá: The Centre of the Covenant of Bahá'u'lláh (Paperback ed.), Oxford, UK: George Ronald, ISBN 0853980438 
  • Browne, E.G. (1918), Materials for the Study of the Bábí Religion, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 
  • Gallagher, Eugene V.; Ashcraft, W. Michael (2006). New and Alternative Religions in America. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0275987124. 
  • Momen, M. (editor) (1981). The Bábí and Bahá'í Religions, 1844-1944 - Some Contemporary Western Accounts. Oxford, UK: George Ronald. ISBN 0853981027. 
  • Van den Hoonaard, Willy Carl (1996). The origins of the Bahá'í community of Canada, 1898-1948. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. ISBN 0889202729. 

External links

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