Admission to practice law
West's Encyclopedia of American Law:
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Admission To the Bar
This entry contains information applicable to United States law only.
The procedure that governs the authorization of attorneys to practice law before the state and federal courts.
Statutes, rules, and regulations governing admission to practice law have been enacted to protect the public interest, in terms of preventing the victimization of clients by incompetent practitioners. The courts have inherent power to promulgate reasonable rules and regulations for admission to the bar. Although this authority is vested exclusively in the courts, the legislature can, subject to constitutional limitations, issue reasonable rules and regulations governing bar admission provided they do not conflict with judicial pronouncements.
The highest state court administers the admission of applicants to the state bar, usually requiring successful completion of a bar examination and evidence of good moral character. With respect to admission to the federal bar, federal district courts are empowered to issue requirements for admission separately from those of the state courts. If, however, a federal district court, pursuant to a rule, derivatively admits to its bar those admitted to the state bar, it cannot arbitrarily deny admission to an applicant who is a member in good standing of the state bar. In most instances, the federal district courts have considerable latitude in establishing requirements for admission to practice before them, but their rules must not contravene federal law.
In terms of the federal bar, an attorney is also eligible for admission to the bar of a court of appeals, if he or she has been admitted to practice before the Supreme Court, or the highest court of a state, or another federal court, and if the lawyer is of good moral and professional character. The attorney must comply with the procedural requirements and take and subscribe to the following oath: "I, [name], do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will demean myself as an attorney and counselor of this court, uprightly and according to law; and that I will support the Constitution of the United States."
In order to gain admission to the bar of the Supreme Court, an attorney must have practiced for three years in the highest court of a state, territory, district, commonwealth, or possession. The person must be of good character in terms of both his or her private and professional lives, and complete the specified procedures, including taking or subscribing the following oath: "I, [name], do solemnly swear (or affirm) that as an attorney and as a counsellor of this court I will conduct myself uprightly, and according to law, and that I will support the Constitution of the United States."
In some instances, a particular board is empowered to promulgate rules pertaining to applicants seeking to practice before it as attorneys. For example, the Securities and Exchange Commission has implied authority under its general statutory power to determine qualifications for attorneys practicing before it. Under federal law, the Commissioner of Patents and Trademarks, subject to the approval of the secretary of commerce, can promulgate regulations governing the recognition and conduct of attorneys appearing before the Patent and Trademark Office.
Qualifications for admission to the bar must be rationally related to the applicant's fitness to practice law; therefore, a state cannot prevent a person from practicing law for racial, political, or religious reasons. Good moral character is a prerequisite to the right to admission to practice law and, at a minimum, consists of honesty. Lack of good moral character is demonstrated by an immutable dishonest and corrupt nature and not in radical political beliefs or membership in lawful but controversial political parties.
In regard to the effect of criminal conduct upon the evaluation of an applicant's character, a conviction for the commission of a felony is not, per se, sufficient to demonstrate a lack of good moral character. It will be incumbent upon the applicant, however, to prove complete rehabilitation. Although a conditional pardon is insufficient to remove objections to bar admission, a felony conviction will not prevent an applicant from practicing law if he or she has received a full pardon and is otherwise qualified.
Misdemeanor convictions do not necessarily result in a finding of lack of good moral character, but mere conduct that does not culminate in a conviction might present an insurmountable obstacle to admission if it indicates a lack of moral fitness. In some cases, an applicant has been rejected for want of good moral character because he or she has made false statements or concealed material facts in the application for admission or in other legal documents. In other cases, the withholding or falsification on the application of minor matters has been viewed as of no effect on an evaluation of character; the same principle applies to unintentional concealment of information.
Admission to the bar cannot be denied because the applicant is not a United States citizen, but the states can impose reasonable residency requirements upon all applicants prior to, or during, the time a license is sought. This requirement enables the state examining authority to investigate the character of the applicant, but it must be rationally related to the attainment of this objective. While a majority of states have some form of residency requirement for admission to the bar, the emerging trend is to nullify durational residency requirements, which mandate that an attorney live in a state for a prescribed period as a prerequisite to certification to practice law.
Applicants for admission to practice law must take a bar examination, unless they are exempted from this requirement by statute or court rule. Attorneys from other states can be admitted to practice in the state without examination upon providing the required proof of practice in another state that has reciprocity provisions, pursuant to which an attorney licensed in one state can be admitted to the bar of another state, if the first state grants reciprocal rights to attorneys admitted to practice in the other state. Under the device of pro hac vice, an attorney can be admitted to practice in a jurisdiction without having to take the bar examination, but only on a limited basis and only for a particular case. Such an attorney must be a member of a bar in good standing of other states or countries.
In order to practice law, an attorney must obtain a certificate or license, which is a privilege rather than a property right. Attorneys must also comply with the court rules or statutes governing the registration system, which is used to maintain a current list of all attorneys authorized to practice law in the state. Generally, admission by court order constitutes sufficient registration, but in some states, attorneys sign the roll or file a certificate with the clerk of the court to establish that they have been duly admitted to practice.
An applicant for admission to the bar is entitled to notice of, and a hearing on, the grounds for rejection either before the committee on character and fitness or the court. The courts can review the decision of bar examiners denying an applicant admission to the bar and ascertain whether the examiners acted after a fair investigation and hearing, exercised their discretion impartially and reasonably, and conducted their proceedings in compliance with the requirements of procedural due process.
See: Attorney; Bar Association; Bar Examination; Courts; Federal Courts.
Wikipedia on Answers.com:
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Admission to practice law
 A lawyer at the tribunal, 19th c. |
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| Occupation | |
|---|---|
| Names | Attorney at law |
| Activity sectors | court finance |
| Description | |
| Education required | see professional requirements |
An admission to practice law, also called admission to the bar in some jurisdictions, is acquired when a lawyer receives a license to practice law. Becoming a lawyer is a widely varied process around the world. Common to all jurisdictions are requirements of age and competence; some jurisdictions also require citizenship.[citation needed] However, the most varied requirements are those surrounding the preparation for the license, whether it includes obtaining a law degree, passing an exam, or serving in an apprenticeship. In English, admission is also[1] called a law license. Basic requirements vary from country to country:
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Contents
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Asia and Pacific Islands
Australia
In Australia, prospective lawyers must complete a law degree (Bachelor of Laws (most common), Juris Doctor, or less commonly the Diploma in Law through the University of Sydney) and complete the practical training requirement which is met by completing an approved practical legal training course or articles of clerkship .[2]
Admission to practice is a matter for each State. However, a person holding a practising certificate in any Australian jurisdiction is entitled to practise from time to time in another Australian jurisdction without gaining admission in that jurisdiction.
New Zealand practitioners may apply for admission pursuant to the Trans Tasman Mutual Recognition Act 1996.
New South Wales
A person is admitted as a legal practitioner after completing the required academic and practical training requirements. These matters are dealt with in the Legal Profession Act 2004. The applicant applies to the Legal Profession Admission Board who assesses applications (both local and foreign), and is ultimately admitted as a lawyer by the Supreme Court of New South Wales (s31 of the Legal profession Act 2004).
After admission a person is then entitled to apply for a practising certificate from the Law Society of New South Wales (if he wishes to practice as a solicitor), or the NSW Bar Association (if he wishes to practice as a barrister). The practising certificate requires the payment of fees, insurance and a contribution to the fidelity fund (which compensates clients in some circumstances).
China
In the People's Republic of China, one must first obtain a recognized degree (a bachelor/master/doctor degree), pass the National Judicial Examination, and complete a one year apprenticeship.[3]
Fiji
Fiji requires a Bachelor of Law degree (four years of study), although that requirement may be waived upon completion of another bachelor's degree and/or sufficient legal experience.[4]
Hong Kong
Hong Kong makes a distinction between barristers and solicitors. Admission to both professions requires a law degree (either the LL.B., which requires four years of study, or the Juris Doctor, which lasts two years) and the Postgraduate Certificate in Laws (which requires nine months). However, the apprenticeship to become a barrister is only one year, while a solicitor must apprentice for two years.[5]
India
In India, prospective lawyers must complete an undergraduate law degree (B.A.,Ll.B, which lasts five years) or a graduate law degree (Ll.B which lasts three years), India also requires all law graduates to appear for an All India Bar Exam graduating after 2009-10, without which they shall not be admitted to practice.
Israel
Israel requires an undergraduate law degree (LL.B., which is a three and a half year program), a one year apprenticeship, and the passing of the bar Examination.[6]
Japan
Japan requires an undergraduate degree in any field (which requires 4 years of study), a Juris Doctor (which lasts 2 or 3 years), the passing of the national bar exam, a 12 month apprenticeship which incorporates additional coursework and passing the graduation examination of apprenticeship.[7][8]
Jordan
Jordan has a developed and restricted rules for admission to practice law, It requires and Academic and practical exams for enrollment in the Bar Association. The probationer must hold a Bachelor degree or equivalent and to have a clear history in the police’s records.
The Bar Association requires a minimum two years of training under supervision. The Bar grants the probationer special permission to appear in front some of the courts.
After two years of the practical training, the probationer submits a written request to be enrolled in the written exams that the Bar held 4 times year. If he mastered the exam within (15/25) then the probationer will be eligible to admit to the verbal exams by the legal committee elected from judges, Professors and senior lawyers. If he/she passed the verbal exam, then it comes to essay stage. Each probationer must write in legal subject and discussed before a committee from senior lawyers which if he/she passed it will lead the probationer to swear the oath before the Minister of Justice. Usually the process takes not less than two and a half and above to accomplish the Bar Association’s requirement to practice law.
South Korea
South Korean attorneys must complete an undergraduate degree in any subject, obtain a master of law degree (법무석사 과정, a three year program), complete courses at the Judicial Research and Training Institute, and pass the bar examination.[9]
Kazakhstan
Lawyers in Kazakhstan must complete an undergraduate law degree and pass the state examination.[10]
Malaysia
Malaysia requires advocates and solicitors to be admitted to the Malaysian Bar. The prerequisite is either a Bachelor of Laws (Hons) degree (an LL.B (Hons)., which requires four years of study) from the local law faculties or a call as a Barrister in the UK or a Certificate in Legal Practice and a nine month pupillage.[11]
New Zealand
New Zealand requires an undergraduate law degree (LL.B., which lasts four years), and completion of the Professional Legal Studies Course (which lasts five months).[12]
Pakistan
Lawyers in Pakistan are called Advocates. To enjoy rights of audience in the Courts in Pakistan, a prospective lawyer/advocate must obtain a Bachelor's degree followed by a Qualifying Law Degree (LL.B of three years) from a recognised Pakistani or common law jurisdiction country's university. All legal education in Pakistan is taught in the English language. After that, he or she must undertake a one year of training under a senior lawyer (called Pupillage/ Apprenticeship/ Intern-ship /Training) at the conclusion of which,he has to take a Bar admission test consisting of multiple choice question paper( or in some cases a professional exam) and an interview with with a serving judge of a High Court. After that the respective Provincial Bar Council may grant him or her the rights of audience in the lower courts (i.e. courts lower than the High Court).
An advocate enrolled with Provincial Bar Council can practice anywhere in the country except the High Courts and Supreme Court of Pakistan. He she will earn rights of audience in the High Courts after a further two years of practice in lower courts, at the end of which (in some Provincial Bar Council's) the advocate has to sit another professional exam and an interview with a judge of a High Court.
After a further 10 years practice in the High Courts, the candidate has to sit another professional exam and an interview with a judge of the Supreme Court to be given the rights of audience in the Supreme Court of Pakistan.
The exams are usually conducted to ensure that the quality of lawyers being produced is maintained to a certain level. The interview is then another opportunity for a senior judge and members of the provincial Bar Council to meet the candidate and see if he or she is fit to be admitted as an advocate of the lower courts/ High Courts or the Supreme Court.
Philippines
To practice law in the Philippines, one must have fulfilled the non-academic and academic requirements. For non-academic requirements, one must be a Filipino, be at least 21 years old, be a resident of the Philippines, and have the moral and other non-academic qualifications needed.[13] In terms of academic requirements, one must have obtained an undergraduate degree (with major, focus or concentration in any of the subjects of History, Economics, Political Science, Logic, English or Spanish), has obtained a Bachelor of Laws degree (or equivalent such as Juris Doctor) from a law school recognized by the Secretary of Education.[13] They must have also taken and passed (75% general average, with no subject falling below 50%) the Bar Exam, taken the Attorney's Oath before the Supreme Court, signed the Roll of Attorneys, remain in good standing with the Integrated Bar of the Philippines, and continually participates in the Mandatory Continuing Legal Education.[13][14]
Singapore
Singapore requires an undergraduate law degree (LL.B., which requires four years, or 3 years for a second entry LL.B.), completion of the Postgraduate Practical Law Course (which lasts 5 months), and the completion of a six month apprenticeship.[15]
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka requires an attorney to be admitted and enrolled as an Attorney-at-Law of the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka.[citation needed] One must pass the required law exams at the Sri Lanka Law College, and then spend one year in apprenticeship to a practicing attorney.[citation needed] To sit for the exams, students must graduate from the Sri Lanka Law College, or be qualified by gaining a LL.B. from a local or foreign university.[citation needed]
Europe
See also: European lawyer
Among European Union members, the Diplomas Directive (Directive no. 89/48/EEC) states that those who have obtained a license or diploma in one state can pursue the profession in another state. Thus, it is not difficult for a law degree in one jurisdiction to be used as a qualifying degree in another jurisdiction within the European Union.
Belgium
In Belgium, a prospective lawyer ("advocaat" in Dutch, "avocat"/"avocate" in French) must complete a Bachelor in Law (which requires three years of study), a Master in Law (which requires two years of study), a three year apprenticeship, the CAPA course of study, and must pass the final bar exam.[16]
Czech Republic
A person must meet the following conditions in order to be admitted to practice law in the Czech republic:[17]
- full capacity
- Master degree in law acquired at a Czech law school or analogous education acquired at a foreign university, if such an education is officially acknowledged as equivalent by an international treaty, by which the Czech republic is bound, or if a particular enactment acknowledges such a foreign education, or if it is acknowledged due to its content and extent from the point of view of knowledge and skill as sufficient for practicing law by the Advocacy Enactment
- at least three years of legal apprenticeship
- personal integrity (absence of conviction for deliberate crime)
- absence of disciplinary punishment of prohibition of law practice (if a person was already a law practitioner)
- absence of being stricken from the list of law practitioners because of personal bankruptcy
- absence of labour engagement or officiary engagement, except of engagement:
- to the Bar Association or to similar organisation in other EU state
- to a law practitioner or to a legal personality established in order to provide legal services
- to a University as a lecturer
- as a scientific worker of Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic
- passing the bar exam
- taking the pledge
Denmark
In Denmark, to use the title of advokat one must complete an LL.B. (three years of study) and a LL.M. (which awards the academic title of Candidata Juris, and requires two years of study), followed by a three year apprenticeship, one year as an assistant lawyer, and an exam which has a moot court element.[18]
France
To become a French lawyer an "avocat"(male)or "avocate"(female), one must obtain an undergraduate degree (licence, three years), a first year of Masters of Laws (diplôme de maîtrise en droit) so a total of 4 years of study in a Law University, complete the exam to enter one of the CRFPA (Centre Régional de Formation à la Profession d'Avocat) which provides a course of eighteen months and results in the award of the requisite Certificat d'aptitude à la profession d'avocat (CAPA).[19]
Finland
Anyone can practice law in Finland, not just lawyers. However, only those licensed by the bar association may use the title asianajaja, which requires the completion of a Bachelor of Laws (or oikeusnotaari, which takes three years), a Master of Laws (or oikeustieteen maisteri), which takes two years, a four year apprenticeship, and the passing of a bar exam which also requires the demonstration of practical skills.[20]
Germany
In Germany, a lawyer (Rechtsanwalt) must be a member of a local bar association. The requirements for membership include an undergraduate law degree (Rechtswissenschaft or Diplom-Jurist, which requires about four and a half years and includes the First State Exam), a two year apprenticeship, and the passing of the Juristisches Staatsexamen (Second State Exam).[21]
Greece
Greece requires that a lawyer (δικηγόρος) be a member of a local bar association. Requirements include an undergraduate law degree, which lasts at least four years, an eighteen month apprenticeship, and the passing of the bar.
Ireland
Following the English tradition, Ireland has both barristers and solicitors. To become a solicitor, one must complete an undergraduate degree or pass the Preliminary Examination. One must then pass the Final Examination, complete a two year apprenticeship, and finish the concurrent Professional Practice Courses. To become a barrister, one must complete an undergraduate law degree (BCL, which lasts three years or LL.B. which last four years) or the Kings Inns Diploma in Legal Studies which lasts two years, obtain the Degree of Barrister-at-Law from the Honorable Society of King's Inns, and finish a one year pupillage (known as devilling).[22]
Italy
Italy mandates membership in an Italian bar association, which requires completion of an undergraduate law degree (Laurea in Scienze Giuridiche, three years), a graduate law degree (Laurea Specialistica in Giurisprudenza (a two years program which confers the title of Dottore Magistrale in Giurisprudenza), or simply the one-cicle five years master degree (Laurea a ciclo unico Magistrale in Giurisprudenza)), a two year apprenticeship, and passing of the professional exam.[23]
Malta
Malta's legal practice if fused and legal practice is regulated by the Chamber of Advocates. Licence to practice law is granted by way of a warrant issued on completion of the Doctorate of Laws (LLD) programme from Malta University (or a comparable international programme) and an admission exam in English and Maltese. Lawyers holding rights to practice in other jurisdictions can apply for an exemption from local practice prohibitions allowing them to offer services under their foreign title though permission is issued by discretion and requires three years local legal practice and a comparable licence elsewhere.
Moldova
Moldova requires an undergraduate law degree and passage of the state examination.[24]
Netherlands
In the Netherlands, to be a licensed lawyer (Advocaat), one must complete an undergraduate law degree (Bacheloropleiding or LL.B, which is three years of study), the master of law degree (doctorandus in law before implementation of the Bologna Process and conferring the meester title, which is a one year LL.M. program), and a three year apprenticeship.[25]
Poland
In Poland, a lawyer (adwokat or radca prawny) must complete a magister's degree in law (which lasts five years) and be admitted to a bar association (The Polish Bar Council or National Chamber of Legal Advisors). There are several ways to gain admission to the bar, including: three years of training followed by the bar exam; five years of legal professional experience followed by the bar exam; a Ph.D. in law followed by either the bar exam or 3 years of legal professional experience; or possession of high academic qualifications in legal sciences (e.g., habilitated doctor or professor). Once admitted to the bar association of one occupation, a lawyer can move to another occupation with little hassle.[26][27]
Russia
It is not necessary to have a license to practice law in Russia as a legal consultant, but only the members of the Russian bar associations (advocates) are permitted to appear in court on criminal matters. In Russia, an advocate must obtain an undergraduate degree in law (four years) and a Specialist in Law or Jurist degree (one year), then pass oral examinations.[28]
Spain
In Spain, a lawyer uses the title of Licenciado/Abogado(male) or Licenciada/Abogada(female), and must be a member of a local bar association, such as the bar association of Madrid. Membership requirements for all bar associations are the same. The only requirement is a graduate law degree, the Titulo de Licenciado en Derecho, which requires five years of study.[29]
Sweden
In Sweden, membership in the bar association is required to use the title of advokat or lawyer, but not to practice law. Membership in the bar association requires an LL.M. degree (jur. kandidatexamen, which lasts four and a half years); three years of legal work which must be in a law office (either an established firm or one's own firm), and the passing of an oral examination.[30]
Switzerland
In Switzerland, lawyers must complete a Bachelor of Law (BLaw, which lasts 3 years), a Master of Law (MLaw, which lasts three terms), a one year to two years apprenticeship (depending on the Canton), and pass the bar examination.[31]
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom comprises three distinct legal jurisdictions:
- English law in England and Wales
- Northern Ireland law in Northern Ireland
- Scots law in Scotland
As such, admission to practice law requires different qualifications in each country of the UK.
England and Wales
In England and Wales, one does not have to be admitted to the bar to practice law, but qualifications are required to become a solicitor or barrister, who have special rights of audience in Court. For both the solicitor and barrister professions, one must either obtain an undergraduate law degree (LL.B., which typically lasts three years), or complete the Common Professional Examination/Graduate Diploma in Law (which lasts one year after completing an undergraduate degree). Potential solicitors are then required to complete the Legal Practice Course which lasts one year, then a two year apprenticeship under a training contract, during which the trainee solicitor has to complete a Professional Skills Course.[32] Potential barristers must usually complete the one year Bar Professional Training Course (formerly Bar Vocational Course), followed by a year of vocational training known as a pupillage.
Scotland
Scotland requires an undergraduate law degree (LL.B., which lasts four years if taken as a first degree (with honours) three if taken as an Ordinary Degree and two years if taken as a graduate entry degree), a Diploma in Legal Practice (one year), and completion of a two year apprenticeship together with the Professional Competence Course (which lasts seven days).[33]
The Americas
In U.S. English, admission to the bar is also commonly known as obtaining one's "law license" ("licence" in Canadian English).
North America
Canada
Canadian applicants to the bar must obtain admission (referred to as the "call to the bar") to one of the provincial or territorial Law Societies in the various jurisdictions of Canada. As an example, in order to sit for the bar exam, the Law Society of British Columbia requires that a student complete an undergraduate degree in any discipline (B.A. of four years), and an undergraduate law degree (LL.B. and/or B.C.L., three to four years) or Juris Doctor (three years). Upon obtaining his or her law degree, the applicant must then successfully complete the bar exam for that jurisdiction, as well as any additional requirements, such as the Professional Legal Training Course (ten weeks). Upon passing the bar exam, the applicant must then complete an apprenticeship referred to as "articling" (nine or ten months).[34]
Mexico
Lawyers in Mexico are required to complete a law degree (Licenciado en Derecho, a five year program), and obtain a practice certificate (cedula professional) from the Bureau of Professions of the Ministry of Education (Direction General de Profesiones), which officially certifies the license by virtue of the law degree.[35]
United States of America
Main article: Admission to the bar in the United States
Lawyers in the United States must be admitted by each U.S. jurisdiction in which legal advice is rendered (a U.S. state, commonwealth or territory), which generally requires that they complete an undergraduate degree in any discipline (usually four years), obtain a Juris Doctor degree (three years minimum) and pass a bar exam. However, the requirements vary between jurisdictions, and there are exceptions to each of the general requirements in some.[36] In a handful of U.S. states, one may become an attorney (a so-called country lawyer) by simply "reading law" and passing the bar examination, without having to attend law school first (although very few people actually become lawyers that way).[37]
South America
Argentina
In Argentina, prospective lawyers must complete an undergraduate law degree (Abogado, which lasts five to six years depending on the University), and then become a member of one of the jurisdictional associations.[38]
Brazil
Brazil requires an undergraduate law degree (Diploma, which lasts five years) and the passing of the bar examination.[39]
Chile
Chile requires a law degree (Licenciado en Ciencias Jurídicas, five years) and a six month apprenticeship.[40]
Peru
Lawyers (Abogados) in Peru must be members of a local bar association, which requires an undergraduate law degree (Bachiller en Derecho, a five year program) and a diploma (Titulo de Abogado), the latter requiring one year of apprenticeship and passing of the bar exam.[41]
See also
References
- ^ The term is more prevalent in U.S. English[citation needed] and to a lesser extent[citation needed] in Canadian English (where it is more usually spelled law licence) similar to other Commonwealth Realms.
— Examples from the U.S. court side include: "Respondent used his law license to commit crimes [...]. Accordingly, we conclude that respondent should be disbarred" (NYCourts.gov, "Appellate Division Decisions of November 15, 2002") and "ordered to surrender his law license and resign from the practice of law" (USDOJ.gov, "EOIR Announces Disciplinary Actions Against 11 Immigration Practitioners", 2001).
— Examples from the U.S. bar side include: "A North Carolina judge who lost his law license based on accusations he took money [...]"[1] and "Scooter Libby Loses Law License"[2] (American Bar Association Journal, both in 2008, from more than 300 instances in the ABA Journal).
— Examples from Canadian medias include: "Disbarred lawyer [...] says he'll fight to get back his law licence."[3] (The Brantford Expositor) and "Convicted murderer wants law licence back"[4] (CBC.ca). - ^ Practising Law in Australia. Council of Australian Law Deans. Accessed January 12, 2011.
- ^ Admission to practice in China. Melbourne Law School. Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ Admission. Fiji Law Society. Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ Admission to practice in Hong Kong. Melbourne Law School. Accessed February 18, 2009. Hong Kong Solicitors. The Law Society of Hong Kong. Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ Ruth Levush. Israeli Law Guide. LLRX.com. Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ Japan Federation of Bar Associations. Martindale.com. Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ Foote, D. (2005). Justice System Reform in Japan
- ^ Qualification of the Attorneys-at-Law. Korean Bar Association. Accessed February 18 , 2009. Korea: Legal Reform Initiative. Maureen and Mike Mansfield Center, University of Montana. Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ Karim Shakirov. A Legal Research Guide to Kazakhstan. LLRX.com. Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ Legal Profession Act, 1976. The Malaysian Bar. Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ Admission. New Zealand Law Society. Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ a b c Suarez, Rolando (1984). Introduction to Law. Parañaque: J & R Printing. pp. 27–28. ISBN 971-23-1950-4.
- ^ http://www.lawphil.net/courts/rules/rc_138_bar.html
- ^ Requirements for Admission as an Advocate & Solicitor of the Supreme Court of Singapore. Law Society of Singapore, Board of Legal Education. Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ Belgium Bar Association. Martindale.com. Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ "Výkon činnosti advokáta - podmínky pro získání povolení". businessinfo.cz. http://www.businessinfo.cz/cz/clanek/pravni-sluzby-jkm/vykon-cinnosti-advokata-podminky/1001791/54247/. Retrieved 2010-08-27.(English)
- ^ Uddannelseskrav (in Danish). Advokatsamfundet (Danish Bar and Law Society). Accessed February 17, 2009. The Danish Bar and Law Society. Martindale.com. Accessed February 17, 2009.
- ^ Les voies d'acces a la profession (in French). Ordredes Avocats de Paris. Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ Jäseneksi hakeminen (in Finnish). Suomen Asianajajaliitto (Finnish Bar Association). Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ Zulassung (in German). Rechtsanwaltskammer Berlin (Bar Association of Berlin). Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ Education. Law Society of Ireland. Accessed February 18, 2009. Prospective Students. The Honorable Society of King’s Inn. Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ Normativa Professionale, R.D.L. 27 novembre 1933, n. 1578 (in Italian). Ordine degli Avvocati di Roma. Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ Mariana Harjevschi. An Overview of the Legal System of the Republic of Moldova. LLRX.com. Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ Act on Advocates. Nederlandse Orde van Advocaten. Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ National Chamber of Legal Advisors
- ^ The Polish Bar Council
- ^ Julia Pogodina and Ruslan Sadovnikov. Legal Education and Legal Careers in Russia. Northwestern University School of Law, Career Center. Accessed January 7, 2009.
- ^ Starting November 1st 2011, according to the "Ley 34/2006, de 30 de octubre, sobre el acceso a las profesiones de Abogado y Procurador de los Tribunales" all lawyers are required to pass a general knowledge test provided by the respective "Colegio de Abogados" in order to be admitted to practice Ilustre Colegio de Abogados de Madrid. Martindale.com. Accessed February 18, 2009. Primera incorporación de licenciados en derecho españoles (in Spanish). Colegio de Abogados de Madrid. Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ [5] (in Swedish). Sveriges Advokatsumfund. Accessed April 17, 2012.
- ^ Education/Supervision. Zurich Bar Association. Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ Solicitors Regulation Authority. Accessed February 18, 2009. Notes on Applications for Certificate of Exemption from the Common Professional Examination. Solicitors Regulation Authority. Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ Law Society of Scotland. Martindale.com. Accessed February 18, 2009. Law Society of Scotland. Law Society of Scotland. Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ Overview of Admissions. Law Society of British Columbia. Accessed February 18, 2009. Equivalences to Becoming a Lawyer in Quebec. Barreau du Quebec. Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ Bohheimer, et al. Unauthorized practice of law by U.S. lawyers in U.S.-Mexico practice. Georgetown Journal of Legal Ethics. 2002.
- ^ Comprehensive Guide to Bar Admission Requirements. National Conference of Bar Examiners. 2008. Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ G. Jeffrey MacDonald, "The self-made lawyer: Not every attorney goes to law school," The Christian Science Monitor, 3 June 2003, 13.
- ^ [6] (in Spanish). Colegio Publico de Abogados de la Capital Federal. Accessed March 19, 2010.
- ^ Edilenice Passos. Doing Legal Research in Brazil. LLRX.com. Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ Quienes son Abogados (in Spanish). Colegio de Abogados de Chile. Accessed February 18, 2009.
- ^ Requisito Incorporacion (in Spanish). Colegio de Abogados de Lima. Accessed February 18, 2009. Requisitos para obtener el titulo de abogado (in Spanish). Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Peru. Accessed February 18, 2009.
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West's Encyclopedia of American Law
West's Encyclopedia of American Law. Copyright © 1998 by The Gale Group, Inc. All rights reserved.
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