aeronautics

American Heritage Dictionary:

aer·o·nau·tics

(âr'ə-nô'tĭks) pronunciation

n. (used with a sing. verb)

The design and construction of aircraft.
The theory and practice of aircraft navigation.

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Aeronautics

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The science and art of flying through the air. This term now refers to all aspects of flight in the atmosphere, from design and manufacturing to operation and maintenance of aircraft and spacecraft, and extends to the economics and logistics of airline operation. See also Air transportation.

Contributors to the field of aeronautics come from many disciplines, including engineering, particularly aeronautical engineering, business administration, economics, computer technology, and such basic disciplines as physics, chemistry, and materials science. Pilot training is another traditional source of entry into the field. Specialties which are important for aeronautics include aerodynamics, airfoil theory, heat transfer, compressor and turbine analysis, jet propulsion, and structural design. See also Aerodynamics; Aeronautical engineering; Airfoil; Astronautics; Heat transfer; Jet propulsion; Turbine propulsion.

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Igor Sikorsky

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Sikorsky's Helicopter

Aeronautical engineer Igor Sikorsky was born on this date in 1889. Sikorsky, who was born in Kiev and immigrated to the US, built and was test pilot for the first multi-motored airplane (1913) and the first successful modern helicopter (1940). The helicoptor was equipped with a single three-blade rotor powered by a 75 horsepower (56kW) engine.

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West's Encyclopedia of American Law:

Aeronautics

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This entry contains information applicable to United States law only.

The science and art of flight, encompassing the functioning and ownership of aircraft vehicles from balloons to those that travel into space.

Aviation is travel by means of an aircraft that is heavier than air. Aerospace is a term used in reference to the atmosphere and the area beyond, such as the aerospace industry, which is involved with the planning and building of vehicles operating in both air and space.

Airspace is the region that extends above real property. Air transportation, as set forth by federal statute, refers to interstate and distant conveyance of people, cargo, and mail by U.S. and foreign aircraft vehicles.

Airspace Rights

The federal government has jurisdiction over airspace within its domain, and each state has authority over the space above the grounds within its borders except in places within the domain of federal regulation. An aircraft is subject to the authority of the federal government and to the authority of a particular state while traveling over it. Landowners have air rights that extend upward beyond their property, the boundaries of which are delineated by local zoning ordinances. These air rights ordinarily may be used to the extent that they are connected to the enjoyment of the property.

Since the general public has a right to freedom of travel in the navigable airspace of the United States, an aircraft may have legal access to airspace above private property. A landowner might have a civil cause of action for trespass or nuisance, however, where an aircraft enters his or her airspace in such manner as to constitute an infringement on the landowner's right to the use and possession of the property. In some instances the landowner is entitled to an injunction to prohibit unlawful intrusion of his or her airspace.

Air Transportation Regulation

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is the agency with the authority to govern air commerce. The intent of such regulation is to advance the growth and safety of air travel while simultaneously satisfying national defense needs. The director of the FAA has the power to engage in, or monitor, work and testing that will bring about the production of advanced aircraft; to set forth prescribed rules and regulations for the planning and servicing of airplanes; and to administer stringent sanctions if the regulations are not observed. The FAA is also responsible for air traffic control at airports. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) is charged with the responsibility of investigating the circumstances surrounding, and the causes of, accidents involving aircraft.

Certificate Requirements

An airplane must have a valid airworthiness certificate in order for it to be lawfully operated. The airworthiness of a plane is determined by an inspector authorized by the FAA. The inspector may neither delegate this duty to inspect the aircraft nor depart from procedures for inspection that have been prescribed by the administrator of the FAA.

The FAA administrator is empowered to create minimum standards for the inspection, maintenance, and repair of air carrier equipment as well as for safe operation of the vehicle. Another important function of the administrator is to issue certificates to eligible aeronautical personnel: that includes pilots, navigators, and people who inspect, maintain, overhaul, and repair aircraft. The administrator specifies the particular function that each of these individuals is qualified to perform.

Certain prerequisites exist for an airline pilot rating, including a great degree of technical skill, medical fitness, care, judgment, and emotional stability. If public safety is endangered, the FAA administrator will either revoke or suspend a pilot's license. A pilot is entitled to notice and a fair hearing before the revocation or suspension of his or her certification, absent an emergency that warrants such immediate action. The pilot may appeal the order of suspension or revocation to the NTSB, and subsequent appeals may be brought to the usual appellate channels of federal courts.

Regulation on the State and Local Level

A state or municipality has the authority to regulate the air traffic that affects it. This power, however, is limited by the condition that the regulation must not interfere or conflict with either interstate commerce or federal restraints. State or municipal regulations on noise precipitated by aircraft engines may not, for example, conflict with federal rules governing noise pollution.

Airport Operation

The state can give a local legislature the power to regulate airports and their connected facilities. States may join together to form a regional airport authority to operate an airport. An airport may also be built and maintained by a private party or a corporation, subject to the requirement that use and enjoyment of neighboring landowners' property is not unreasonably disrupted.

Airports that are not properly constructed and operated might amount to nuisances. A private homeowner can sue for damages in the event that an improperly run airport constitutes a nuisance, and can attempt to have the court suspend its operation pursuant to the provisions of an injunction. Notice must be given to the municipality before such a cause of action may be commenced against it. In considering the need for intervention concerning the building and operation of airports, courts examine the interests of the concerned parties in light of prevailing public policy in favor of encouraging quiet use and enjoyment of one's land compared to the interests of society at large in accessible and convenient air travel.

The creation and maintenance of airports are subject to zoning regulations. In certain jurisdictions a public agency is empowered by the state to adopt zoning laws that limit the use of adjacent property. Such ordinances are designed to reduce interference with the operation of the airport.

The owner of a public airport may arrange leases for its use, and a municipality that owns an airport may charge reasonable fees for the right to do business there. A public airport owner has the power to govern its ground transportation, to give exclusive privileges to transport passengers to and from the airport to qualified individuals and companies, and to run an automobile rental company on airport grounds.

Use and Ownership of Aircraft Vehicles

The legality of the sale or conveyance of an aircraft is regulated by the statute of the jurisdiction where the document of conveyance or sale is transferred.

Federal law mandates the registration of aircraft and the proper recording of any paper that affects its title, such as a mortgage. Such recording must take place at the administration and records branch of the FAA. In addition, documents creating security interests in the aircraft must be recorded to provide notice to prospective purchasers of prior claims to the vehicle.

General principles of contract law govern aircraft rental and parties to the agreement are ordinarily bound by its terms. The renter of a defective vehicle might, however, have the right to terminate the contract since the individual offering the aircraft for rent is obligated to provide a vehicle in satisfactory operating condition.

Duties in Aircraft Operation

An individual who is injured as a result of the operation of an aircraft usually has a legally enforceable right to damages for any injuries or losses sustained.

Manufacturers

A manufacturer is under a duty to exercise reasonable care and proficiency in the design, production, and assembly of an aircraft vehicle. Liability for a departure from this duty may be extended to the manufacturer regardless of whether that company was directly involved in the manufacture of the parts. The law will imply a warranty of proper design and manufacture of an aircraft. A manufacturer of parts will also be held responsible for damage caused by the product and must use a high degree of care in their production, although they need not be made accident-proof. A manufacturer is not relieved of a continuing obligation to improve the component parts of an air vehicle when there is continuing risk to safe travel.

Pilots

The pilot of a private aircraft is subject to ordinary negligence standards in the absence of a special law. The pilot is required to exercise ordinary, but not extreme, care and caution regarding its operation. Negligence rules, however, impose a greater standard of care when applied to aviation, because of the severity and magnitude of potential harm posed by improper operation of an aircraft.

Owners

Generally ownership of an aircraft vehicle is insufficient to render an owner liable for damage resulting from its unreasonable operation by another. In certain jurisdictions, however, an owner who lends a plane to an individual he or she knows to be reckless or incompetent will be held responsible. Similarly, the federal or state government cannot evade liability for damage arising out of the improper operation of its aircraft by government employees.

Passengers

Passengers in a private aircraft have the obligation to exercise reasonable care for their own well-being. They must subscribe to the reasonable person standard and refrain from going on a particular flight that would be an obvious danger, such as a flight during a hurricane.

Passengers on airlines and other air common carriers must observe safety precautions by obeying instructions of flight attendants, such as by fastening their seatbelts.

Operators of Airplanes

An airport operator has the duty to exercise ordinary care in protecting aircraft on its premises and the people who use airport facilities. Neglecting to maintain the airport premises in a reasonably safe condition results in tort liability for resulting injuries to persons present.

Air Traffic Control

The federal government has responsibility for air traffic control. Air traffic controllers have a duty to keep aircraft from colliding with each other by guiding their paths. Liability can be extended to the federal government for the negligence of its air traffic controllers. Contributory negligence by the individual harmed might, however, block recovery against the United States for damage caused only partially by the negligence of controllers.

Airlines

An airline has the duty to employ the greatest degree of care possible to protect its passengers. Liability might be imposed for harm to a passenger resulting from wrongful behavior of its employees. It must also take steps to guard passengers against misconduct of fellow passengers.

Companies that accept goods for air transport must exercise a high degree of care to properly handle and deliver such goods. Liability for loss or damage may be restricted to a prearranged amount, which must be listed on the passenger's ticket in the case of baggage or on the bill of lading regarding the goods shipped.

Flying Schools

A flying school that maintains facilities that interfere with the customary use and enjoyment of property by neighboring landowners can be liable for nuisance or trespass. A student pilot flying with a flight instructor is considered legally to be a passenger, and, therefore, the school owes the same duty of care to the student as a commercial airline owes to its passenger. A trainee, however, assumes certain risks while being taught to fly and the school can successfully assert the defense of assumption of the risk in tort cases. A member of a flight club, as an owner of an airplane that belongs to the club, may be held personally liable for accidents that might occur while he or she is piloting the craft. Statutes that govern the liability of a flight club member should be consulted.

Air Piracy

Aircraft piracy or an attempt to hijack an airplane is a federal offense, punishable by either death or imprisonment. Airlines can deny an individual passage on an airplane if a magnetometer (an instrument used to measure magnetic intensity) indicates the presence of a metal object, such as a weapon, on that person by registering a positive reading and the person refuses to surrender to the appropriate officials any metal object that might have energized the instrument.

Aerospace

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was established by Congress to organize, direct, and carry out research into difficulties attached to flight within and beyond the atmosphere of the earth and to facilitate the development and functioning of aeronautical vehicles.

See: Airlines; Carriers; Federal Aviation Administration; Hijacking; National Transportation Safety Board.

Word Tutor:

aeronautics

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IN BRIEF: The science of flight.

The study of aeronautics helps make airplane travel safe.

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McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Aviation:

aeronautics

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The science of aerial locomotion and the production apparatus of flight, both piloted and unpiloted, or the study of travel through the earth’s atmosphere. The science of aeronautics essentially studies design, construction, and operation of aircraft within the earth’s atmosphere. For studies involving travel in space, there is a separate branch called astronautics.

Random House Word Menu:

categories related to 'aeronautics'

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Random House Word Menu by Stephen Glazier

For a list of words related to aeronautics, see:

Aviation and Aerodynamics - aeronautics: science, art, and business of designing, building, and flying aircraft

Wikipedia on Answers.com:

Aeronautics

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Space Shuttle Atlantis on a Shuttle Carrier Aircraft.

Aeronautics (from Greek ὰήρ āēr which means "air" and ναυτική nautikē which means "navigation, Airmanship", i.e. "navigation of the air") is the science involved with the study, design, and manufacturing of airflight-capable machines, or the techniques of operating aircraft and rocketry within the atmosphere. While the term—literally meaning "sailing the air"—originally referred solely to the science of operating the aircraft, it has since been expanded to include technology, business and other aspects related to aircraft.^[1]

One of the significant parts in aeronautics is a branch of physical science called aerodynamics, which deals with the motion of air and the way that it interacts with objects in motion, such as an aircraft. The term "aviation" is sometimes used interchangeably with aeronautics, although "aeronautics" includes lighter-than-air craft such as airships, and includes ballistic vehicles while "aviation" does not.^[1]

Contents

1 Early aeronautics
2 Early aviation research
3 Early aviation
4 Modern aviation
5 Rocketry
6 See also
7 References
8 External links

Early aeronautics

Francesco Lana de Terzi's flying boat concept c.1670.

The first mention of aeronautics in history was in the writings of ancient Egyptians who described the flight of birds. It also finds mention in ancient China where people were flying kites thousands of years ago. The medieval Islamic scientists were not far behind, as they understood the actual mechanism of bird flight. Before scientific investigation of aeronautics started, people started thinking of ways to fly. In a Greek legend, Icarus and his father Daedalus built wings of feathers and wax and flew out of a prison. Icarus flew too close to the sun, the wax melted, and he fell in the sea and drowned. When people started to scientifically study how to fly, people began to understand the basics of air and aerodynamics. Ibn Firnas may have tried to fly in 8th century in Cordoba, Al-Andalus.^[2]

Roger Bacon and Leonardo da Vinci were some of the first modern Europeans to study aeronautics. Leonardo studied the flight of birds in developing engineering schematics for some of the earliest flying machines in the late fifteenth century AD. His schematics, however, such as the Ornithopter ultimately failed as practical aircraft. The flapping machines that he designed were either too small to generate sufficient lift, or too heavy for a human to operate.

Although the ornithopter continues to be of interest to hobbyists, it was replaced by the glider in the 19th century. Sir George Cayley was one of the most important people in the history of aeronautics. Many consider him the first true scientific aerial investigator and the first person to understand the underlying principles and forces of flight.^[3] A pioneer of aeronautical engineering,^[4] he is credited as the first person to separate the forces of lift and drag which are in effect on any flight vehicle,^[5]

Francesco Lana de Terzi, a 17th century Jesuit professor of physics and mathematics from Brescia, Lombardy, has been referred to as the Father of Aeronautics.^[6] In his work Prodromo dell'Arte Maestra (1670) he proposes a lighter-than-air vessel based on logical deductions from previous work ranging from Archimedes and Euclid to his contemporaries Robert Boyle and Otto von Guericke.

Early aviation research

Main article: Aviation history

Many cultures have built devices that travel through the air, from the earliest projectiles such as stones and spears.,^[7]^[8] the boomerang in Australia, the hot air Kongming lantern, and kites. There are early legends of human flight such as the story of Icarus, and Jamshid in Persian myth, and later, somewhat more credible claims of short-distance human flights appear, such as the flying automaton of Archytas of Tarentum (428–347 BC),^[9] the winged flights of Abbas Ibn Firnas (810–887), Eilmer of Malmesbury (11th century), and the hot-air Passarola of Bartolomeu Lourenço de Gusmão (1685–1724).

The modern age of aviation began with the first untethered human lighter-than-air flight on November 21, 1783, in a hot air balloon designed by the Montgolfier brothers. The practicality of balloons was limited because they could only be controlled vertically. It was immediately recognized that a steerable, or dirigible, balloon was required. Jean-Pierre Blanchard flew the first human-powered dirigible in 1784 and crossed the English Channel in one in 1785.

In 1799 Sir George Cayley set forth the concept of the modern airplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control.^[10]^[4] Early dirigible developments included machine-powered propulsion (Henri Giffard, 1852), rigid frames (David Schwarz, 1896), and improved speed and maneuverability (Alberto Santos-Dumont, 1901)

Early aviation

First assisted take-off flight by the Wright Brothers, December 17, 1903

While there are many competing claims for the earliest powered, heavier-than-air flight, the most widely-accepted date is December 17, 1903 by the Wright brothers. The Wright brothers were the first to fly in a powered and controlled aircraft. Previous flights were gliders (control but no power) or free flight (power but no control), but the Wright brothers combined both, setting the new standard in aviation records. Following this, the widespread adoption of ailerons versus wing warping made aircraft much easier to control, and only a decade later, at the start of World War I, heavier-than-air powered aircraft had become practical for reconnaissance, artillery spotting, and even attacks against ground positions.

Aircraft began to transport people and cargo as designs grew larger and more reliable. In contrast to small non-rigid blimps, giant rigid airships became the first aircraft to transport passengers and cargo over great distances. The best known aircraft of this type were manufactured by the German Zeppelin company.

Hindenburg at Lakehurst Naval Air Station, 1936

The most successful Zeppelin was the Graf Zeppelin. It flew over one million miles, including an around-the-world flight in August 1929. However, the dominance of the Zeppelins over the aeroplanes of that period, which had a range of only a few hundred miles, was diminishing as aeroplane design advanced. The "Golden Age" of the airships ended on May 6, 1937 when the Hindenburg caught fire, killing 36 people. Although there have been periodic initiatives to revive their use, airships have seen only niche application since that time.

Great progress was made in the field of aviation during the 1920s and 1930s, such as Charles Lindbergh's solo transatlantic flight in 1927, and Charles Kingsford Smith's transpacific flight the following year. One of the most successful designs of this period was the Douglas DC-3, which became the first airliner that was profitable carrying passengers exclusively, starting the modern era of passenger airline service. By the beginning of World War II, many towns and cities had built space, and there were numerous qualified pilots available. The war brought many innovations to aviation, including the first jet aircraft and the first liquid-fueled rockets.

Modern aviation

NASA's Helios researches solar powered flight.

After World War II, especially in North America, there was a boom in general aviation, both private and commercial, as thousands of pilots were released from military service and many inexpensive war-surplus transport and training aircraft became available. Manufacturers such as Cessna, Piper, and Beechcraft expanded production to provide light aircraft for the new middle-class market.

By the 1950s, the development of civil jets grew, beginning with the de Havilland Comet, though the first widely-used passenger jet was the Boeing 707, because it was much more economical than other planes at the time. At the same time, turboprop propulsion began to appear for smaller commuter planes, making it possible to serve small-volume routes in a much wider range of weather conditions.

Since the 1960s, composite airframes and quieter, more efficient engines have become available, and Concorde provided supersonic passenger service for more than two decades, but the most important lasting innovations have taken place in instrumentation and control. The arrival of solid-state electronics, the Global Positioning System, satellite communications, and increasingly small and powerful computers and LED displays, have dramatically changed the cockpits of airliners and, increasingly, of smaller aircraft as well. Pilots can navigate much more accurately and view terrain, obstructions, and other nearby aircraft on a map or through synthetic vision, even at night or in low visibility.

On June 21, 2004, Space Ship One became the first privately funded aircraft to make a spaceflight, opening the possibility of an aviation market capable of leaving the Earth's atmosphere. Meanwhile, flying prototypes of aircraft powered by alternative fuels, such as ethanol, electricity, and even solar energy, are becoming more common and may soon enter the mainstream, at least for light aircraft.

Rocketry

References

^ ^a ^b "Aeronautics". Encyclopedia Americana. 1. Grolier. 1986. pp. 226.
^ First Flights, Saudi Aramco World, January–February 1964, p. 8-9.
^ "Sir George Carley". Flyingmachines.org. http://www.flyingmachines.org/cayl.html. Retrieved 2009-07-26. "Sir George Cayley is one of the most important people in the history of aeronautics. Many consider him the first true scientific aerial investigator and the first person to understand the underlying principles and forces of flight."
^ ^a ^b "Sir George Carley (British Inventor and Scientist)". Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/100795/Sir-George-Cayley-6th-Baronet. Retrieved 2009-07-26. "English pioneer of aerial navigation and aeronautical engineering and designer of the first successful glider to carry a human being aloft."
^ "The Pioneers: Aviation and Airmodelling". http://www.ctie.monash.edu.au/hargrave/cayley.html. Retrieved 2009-07-26. "Sir George Cayley, is sometimes called the 'Father of Aviation'. A pioneer in his field, he is credited with the first major breakthrough in heavier-than-air flight. He was the first to identify the four aerodynamic forces of flight - weight, lift, drag, and thrust - and their relationship and also the first to build a successful human carrying glider."
^ "Francesco Lana-Terzi, S.J. (1631-1687); The Father of Aeronautics". http://www.faculty.fairfield.edu/jmac/sj/scientists/lana.htm. Retrieved 1 May 2010.
^ Archytas of Tar entum, Technology Museum of Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece
^ Automata history
^ "Aviation: Reaching for the Sky". Don Berliner (1997). The Oliver Press, Inc. p.28. ISBN 1881508331
^ "Aviation History". http://www.aviation-history.com/early/cayley.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-26.
^ Sutton, George (2001). "1". Rocket Propulsion Elements (7th ed.). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780471326427. http://books.google.com/?id=LQbDOxg3XZcC&printsec=frontcover.
^ MSFC History Office "Rockets in Ancient Times (100 B.C. to 17th Century)"

External links

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Aeronautics.

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Aeronautics

Look up aeronautics in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Aeronautics History in Turkey
Aeronautics History - Charles Vivian - 1920 (eLibrary Project - eLib full text)
Aerospace courses at MIT OpenCourseWare
American Academy of Aeronautics aeronautical science
American Helicopter Society
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Examples of Aeronautic Designs
What is aeronautics? The history of world Aeronautics (Russian)
Aircraft Design: Synthesis and Analysis
ACARE Taxonomy
CREating innovative Air transport Technologies for Europe

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Translations:

Aeronautics

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Dansk (Danish)
n. - aeronautik, flyvning

Nederlands (Dutch)
aëronautiek

Français (French)
n. - aéronautique

Deutsch (German)
n. - Aeronautik

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - αεροναυτική (μηχανική)

Italiano (Italian)
aeronautica

Português (Portuguese)
n. pl. - aeronáutica (f)

Русский (Russian)
аэронавтика

Español (Spanish)
n. - aeronáutico, aeronáutica

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - flygteknik, luftfarts-
n. pl. - flygteknik, luftfarts-

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
航空学, 飞行术

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. pl. - 航空學, 飛行術
n. - 航空學, 飛行術

한국어 (Korean)
n. pl. - 항공학, 비행술
n. - 항공술, 항공학

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 航空学, 航空術

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) علم ألطيران‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮התיאוריה והמעשה של הטיס, טיס, נווטות, אווירונאוטיקה‬

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