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agoraphobia

 
Medical Encyclopedia: Agoraphobia

Definition

The word agoraphobia is derived from Greek words literally meaning "fear of the marketplace." The term is used to describe an irrational and often disabling fear of being out in public.

Description

Agoraphobia is just one type of phobia, or irrational fear. People with phobias feel dread or panic when they face certain objects, situations, or activities. People with agoraphobia frequently also experience panic attacks, but panic attacks, or panic disorder, are not a requirement for a diagnosis of agoraphobia. The defining feature of agoraphobia is anxiety about being in places from which escape might be embarrasing or difficult, or in which help might be unavailable. The person suffering from agoraphobia usually avoids the anxiety-provoking situation and may become totally housebound.

— Robert Scott Dinsmoor



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Dictionary: ag·o·ra·pho·bi·a   (ăg'ər-ə-fō'bē-ə) pronunciation
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n.
An abnormal fear of open or public places.

[Greek agorā, marketplace + -PHOBIA.]

agoraphobiac ag·o·ra·pho'bi·ac' (-ăk') n.
agoraphobic ag'o·ra·pho'bic adj. & n.

Dental Dictionary: agoraphobia
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n

An anxiety disorder characterized by a fear of being in an open, crowded, or public place where escape may be difficult or help may not be available if needed.

Veterinary Dictionary: agoraphobia
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In animals, a reluctance to go outside. Includes companion animals and especially horses that have been kept in stables for long periods. See also barn rat.

Obscure Words: agoraphobia
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fear of open spaces
Phobia: demophobia
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agoraphobia or enochlophobia

Fear of crowds.

Wikipedia: Agoraphobia
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Agoraphobia
Classification and external resources
ICD-10 F40.
F40.00 Without panic disorder, F40.01 With panic disorder
ICD-9 300.22 Without panic disorder, 300.21 With panic disorder
MeSH D000379

Agoraphobia (from Greek aγορά, "marketplace"; and φόβος/φοβία, -phobia) is an anxiety disorder, often precipitated by the fear of having a panic attack in a setting from which there is no easy means of escape. As a result, sufferers of agoraphobia avoid public and/or unfamiliar places, especially large, open, spaces such as shopping malls or airports where there are few 'places to hide'. In severe cases, the sufferer may become confined to his or her home, experiencing difficulty traveling from this "safe place."

Contents

Definition

Agoraphobia is a condition where the sufferer becomes anxious in environments that are unfamiliar or where he or she perceives that they have little control. Triggers for this anxiety may include wide open spaces, crowds, or traveling (even short distances). Agoraphobia is often, but not always, compounded by a fear of social embarrassment, as the agoraphobic fears the onset of a panic attack and appearing distraught in public. This is also sometimes called 'Social Agoraphobia' which may be a type of social anxiety disorder also sometimes called social phobia. Not all agoraphobia is social in nature, however. Some agoraphobics have a fear of open spaces. Other syndromes like obsessive compulsive disorder or post traumatic stress disorder can also cause agaoraphobia, basically any irrational fear that keeps one from going outside can cause the syndrome.[1]

Gender differences

Agoraphobia occurs about twice as commonly among women as it does in men.[2] The gender difference may be attributable to social-cultural factors that encourage, or permit, the greater expression of avoidant coping strategies by women. Other theories include the ideas that women are more likely to seek help and therefore be diagnosed, that men are more likely to abuse alcohol as a reaction to anxiety and be diagnosed as an alcoholic, and that traditional female sex roles encourage women to react to anxiety by engaging in dependent and helpless behaviors.[3] Research results have not yet produced a single clear explanation as to the gender difference[citation needed] in agoraphobia.

Shortage of Therapists

Because agoraphobia sufferers are often unable to leave their homes, in many parts of the world this presents a problem because many therapists, psychologists and psychiatrists no longer do home visits. Consequently many agoraphobics have great difficulty getting the help that they need.

Causes and contributing factors

The causes of agoraphobia are currently unknown. It is linked however to the presence of other anxiety disorders, a stressful environment or substance abuse. More women than men are affected.[4] Chronic use of tranquilizers and sleeping pills such as benzodiazepines has been linked to causing agoraphobia. When benzodiazepine dependence has been treated and after a period of abstinence, agoraphobia symptoms gradually abate.[5]

Research has uncovered a linkage between agoraphobia and difficulties with spatial orientation.[6][7][8] Individuals without agoraphobia are able to maintain balance by combining information from their vestibular system, their visual system and their proprioceptive sense. A disproportionate number of agoraphobics have weak vestibular function and consequently rely more on visual or tactile signals. They may become disoriented when visual cues are sparse as in wide open spaces or overwhelming as in crowds. Likewise, they may be confused by sloping or irregular surfaces.[9] Compared to controls, in virtual reality studies, agoraphobics on average show impaired processing of changing audiovisual data.[10]

Alternate theories

Attachment theory

Some scholars [11][12] have explained agoraphobia as an attachment deficit, i.e., the temporary loss of the ability to tolerate spatial separations from a secure base.[13] Recent empirical research has also linked attachment and spatial theories of agoraphobia.[14]

Spatial theory

In the social sciences there is a perceived clinical bias [15] in agoraphobia research. Branches of the social sciences, especially geography, have increasingly become interested in what may be thought of as a spatial phenomenon. One such approach links the development of agoraphobia with modernity.[16]

Diagnosis

Most people who present to mental health specialists develop agoraphobia after the onset of panic disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 1998). Agoraphobia is best understood as an adverse behavioral outcome of repeated panic attacks and subsequent anxiety and preoccupation with these attacks that leads to an avoidance of situations where a panic attack could occur.[17] In rare cases where agoraphobics do not meet the criteria used to diagnose Panic Disorder, the formal diagnosis of Agoraphobia Without History of Panic Disorder is used (Primary Agoraphobia).[18]

DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria

A) Anxiety about being in places or situations from which escape might be difficult (or embarrassing) or in which help may not be available in the event of having an unexpected or situationally predisposed panic attack or panic-like symptoms. Agoraphobic fears typically involve characteristic clusters of situations that include being outside the home alone; being in a crowd, or standing in a line; being on a bridge; and traveling in a bus, train, or automobile.

B) The situations are avoided (e.g., travel is restricted) or else are endured with marked distress or with anxiety about having a panic attack or panic-like symptoms, or require the presence of a companion.

C) The anxiety or phobic avoidance is not better accounted for by another mental disorder, such as Social Phobia (e.g., avoidance limited to social situations because of fear of embarrassment), Specific Phobia (e.g., avoidance limited to a single situation like elevators), Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (e.g., avoidance of dirt in someone with an obsession about contamination), Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (e.g., avoidance of stimuli associated with a severe stressor), or Separation Anxiety Disorder (e.g., avoidance of leaving home or relatives).[19]

Association with panic attacks

Agoraphobia patients can experience sudden panic attacks when traveling to places where they fear they are out of control, help would be difficult to obtain, or they could be embarrassed. During a panic attack, epinephrine is released in large amounts, triggering the body's natural fight-or-flight response. A panic attack typically has an abrupt onset, building to maximum intensity within 10 to 15 minutes, and rarely lasts longer than 30 minutes.[20] Symptoms of a panic attack include palpitations, a rapid heartbeat, sweating, trembling, vomiting, dizziness, tightness in the throat and shortness of breath. Many patients report a fear of dying or of losing control of emotions and/or behavior. [20]

Treatments

Agoraphobia can be successfully treated in many cases through a very gradual process of graduated exposure therapy combined with cognitive therapy and sometimes anti-anxiety or antidepressant medications.[citation needed] Treatment options for agoraphobia and panic disorder are similar.

Cognitive behavioral treatments

Exposure treatment can provide lasting relief to the majority of patients with panic disorder and agoraphobia. Disappearance of residual and subclinical agoraphobic avoidance, and not simply of panic attacks, should be the aim of exposure therapy.[21] Similarly, Systematic desensitization may also be used.

Cognitive restructuring has also proved useful in treating agoraphobia. This treatment uses thought replacing with the goal of replacing one's irrational, counter-factual beliefs with more accurate and beneficial ones.[citation needed]

Relaxation techniques are often useful skills for the agoraphobic to develop, as they can be used to stop or prevent symptoms of anxiety and panic.[citation needed]

Psychopharmaceutical treatments

Anti-depressant medications most commonly used to treat anxiety disorders are mainly in the SSRI (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor) class and include sertraline, paroxetine and fluoxetine. Benzodiazepine tranquilizers, MAO inhibitors and tricyclic antidepressants are also commonly prescribed for treatment of agoraphobia.[citation needed]

Alternative treatments

Eye movement desensitization and reprogramming (EMDR) has been studied as a possible treatment for agoraphobia, with poor results.[22] As such, EMDR is only recommended in cases where cognitive-behavioral approaches have proven ineffective or in cases where agoraphobia has developed following trauma.[23]

Additionally, many people with anxiety disorders benefit from joining a self-help or support group (telephone conference call support groups or online support groups being of particular help for completely housebound individuals). Sharing problems and achievements with others as well as sharing various self-help tools are common activities in these groups. In particular Stress management techniques and various kinds of meditation practices as well as visualization techniques can help people with anxiety disorders calm themselves and may enhance the effects of therapy. So can service to others which can distract from the self-absorption that tends to go with anxiety problems. There is also preliminary evidence that aerobic exercise may have a calming effect. Since caffeine, certain illicit drugs, and even some over-the-counter cold medications can aggravate the symptoms of anxiety disorders, they should be avoided.[24]

Notable agoraphobes

See also

References

  1. ^ Psych Central: Agoraphobia Symptoms
  2. ^ Magee, W. J., Eaton, W. W. , Wittchen, H. U., McGonagle, K. A., & Kessler, R. C. (1996). Agoraphobia, simple phobia, and social phobia in the National Comorbidity Survey, Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 159–168.
  3. ^ Agoraphobia Research Center. "Is agoraphobia more common in men or women?". http://www.agoraphobia.ws/whogets.htm. Retrieved 2007-11-15. 
  4. ^ "Agoraphobia". http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/agoraphobia/DS00894/DSECTION=risk%2Dfactors. 
  5. ^ Professor C Heather Ashton (1987). "Benzodiazepine Withdrawal: Outcome in 50 Patients". British Journal of Addiction 82: 655–671. http://www.benzo.org.uk/ashbzoc.htm. 
  6. ^ R. Spiti: Primary Agoraphobia's specific Symptoms: from natural information to mental representations http://docs.google.com/View?docID=dc45mkq9_1ftdhjn2d&revision=_latest
  7. ^ "Relationship between balance system function and agoraphobic avoidance.". Behav Res Ther. 33 (4): 435–9. 1995 May. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(94)00060-W. PMID 7755529 : 7755529. 
  8. ^ "Panic, agoraphobia, and vestibular dysfunction". Am J Psychiatry 153: 503–512. 1996. 
  9. ^ "Surface dependence: a balance control strategy in panic disorder with agoraphobia". Psychosom Med. 59 (3): 323–30. 1997 May-June. PMID 9178344 : 9178344. 
  10. ^ "High sensitivity to multisensory conflicts in agoraphobia exhibited by virtual reality.". Eur Psychiatry 21 (7): 501–8. 2006 October. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2004.10.004. PMID 17055951 : 17055951. 
  11. ^ G. Liotti, (1996). Insecure attachment and agoraphobia, in: C. Murray-Parkes, J. Stevenson-Hinde, & P. Marris (Eds.). Attachment Across the Life Cycle.
  12. ^ J. Bowlby, (1998). Attachment and Loss (Vol. 2: Separation).
  13. ^ K. Jacobson, (2004). "Agoraphobia and Hypochondria as Disorders of Dwelling." International Studies in Philosophy 36, 31-44.
  14. ^ J. Holmes, (2008). "Space and the secure base in agoraphobia: a qualitative survey", Area, 40, 3, 357 - 382.
  15. ^ J. Davidson, (2003). Phobic Geographies
  16. ^ J. Holmes, (2006). "Building Bridges and Breaking Boundaries: Modernity and Agoraphobia", Opticon1826, 1, 1, http://www.ucl.ac.uk/opticon1826/archive/issue1
  17. ^ Barlow, D. H. (1988). Anxiety and its disorders: The nature and treatment of anxiety and panic. Guilford Press. 
  18. ^ R. Spiti: Primary Agoraphobia's specific Symptoms: from natural information to mental representations http://docs.google.com/Doc?docid=0AbHhNqXIspq4ZGM0NW1rcTlfMWZ0ZGhqbjJk&hl=en_G
  19. ^ Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision (DVM-IV-TR). 2000. 
  20. ^ a b David Satcher etal. (1999). "Chapter 4.2". Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/chapter4/sec2.html. 
  21. ^ Fava, G.A.; Rafanelli, C.; Grandi, S.; Cinto, S.; Ruini, C. (2001). "Long-term outcome of panic disorder with agoraphobia treated by exposure". Psychological Medicine (Cambridge University Press) 31: 891–898. doi:10.1017/S0033291701003592. 
  22. ^ Goldstein, Alan J.; Goldstein, Alan J., de Beurs, Edwin, Chambless, Dianne L., Wilson, Kimberly A. (2000). "EMDR for Panic Disorder With Agoraphobia : Comparison With Waiting List and Credible Attention-Placebo Control Conditions". Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology 68 (6): 947–957. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.68.6.947. 
  23. ^ Agoraphobia Resource Center, Agoraphobia treatments - Eye movement desensitization and reprogramming, http://www.agoraphobia.ws/treatment-emdr.htm, retrieved 2008-04-18 
  24. ^ National Institute of Mental Health, How to get help for anxiety disorders, http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/anxiety-disorders/how-to-get-help-for-anxiety-disorders.shtml, retrieved 2008-04-18 
  25. ^ "Reconstructing Woody"
  26. ^ "Kim Basinger". Nndb.com. http://www.nndb.com/people/310/000025235. Retrieved 2009-08-19. 
  27. ^ [1]
  28. ^ "Editing H. L. Gold (section) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia". En.wikipedia.org. 2009-02-05. http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=H._L._Gold&action=edit&section=4. Retrieved 2009-08-19. 
  29. ^ Profile of Brian Wilson. The Independent. Retrieved 3 September 2007.
  30. ^ Biography for Daryl Hannah. Internet Movie Database. Retrieved 28 November 2007.
  31. ^ Psychological Autopsy can help understand controversial deaths -- The Crime Library on truTV.com
  32. ^ Olivia Hussey - People Magazine – March 16, 1992
  33. ^ Olivia Hussey Biography - Internet Movie Database
  34. ^ Stanisław Fita, ed., Wspomnienia o Bolesławie Prusie (Reminiscences about Bolesław Prus), Warsaw, Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy (State Publishing Institute), 1962, p. 113.
  35. ^ Whatever Happened to the Gender Benders?, Channel 4 documentary, United Kingdom.

External links


US-NIH-NIMH-Logo.svg This article incorporates text from the National Institute of Mental Health, which is in the public domain.


Translations: Agoraphobia
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Dansk (Danish)
n. - agorafobi, angst for åbne pladser

Nederlands (Dutch)
agorafobie (pleinvrees)

Français (French)
n. - agoraphobie

Deutsch (German)
n. - Platzangst, Agoraphobie

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - (ψυχολ.) αγοραφοβία, παθολογικός φόβος για ανοικτούς χώρους ή πλήθος ανθρώπων

Italiano (Italian)
agorafobia

Português (Portuguese)
n. - agorafobia (f)

Русский (Russian)
боязнь открытого пространства

Español (Spanish)
n. - agorafobia

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - torgskräck

中文(简体)(Chinese (Simplified))
广场恐怖症, 陌生环境恐怖症, 旷野恐怖症

中文(繁體)(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 廣場恐怖症, 陌生環境恐怖症, 曠野恐怖症

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 광장 공포증

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 広場恐怖症, 広場恐怖

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) رهاب ألخلاء : خوف مرضي من ألأرض والفضاء‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮פחד ממקומות פתוחים או ציבוריים, בעת-חוץ‬


 
 

 

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