air sac

Diagram of the alveoli with both cross-section and external view

An alveolus (plural: alveoli, from Latin alveus, "little cavity"), is an anatomical structure that has the form of a hollow cavity. Mainly found in the lung, the pulmonary alveoli are spherical outcroppings of the respiratory bronchioles and are the primary sites of gas exchange with the blood. Alveoli are particular to mammalian lungs; different structures are involved in gas exchange in other vertebrates.^[1]

Location

The alveoli are found in the respiratory zone of the lungs.

Anatomy

The lungs contain about 300 million alveoli, representing a total surface area of 70-90 square metres, each wrapped in a fine mesh of capillaries.

The alveoli have radii of about 0.1 mm and wall thicknesses of about 0.2 µm.

The alveoli consist of an epithelial layer and extracellular matrix surrounded by capillaries. In some alveolar walls there are pores between alveoli.

There are three major alveolar cell types in the alveolar wall (pneumocytes):

• Type I cells that form the structure of an alveolar wall
• Type II cells that secrete surfactant to lower the surface tension of water and allows the membrane to separate thereby increasing the capability to exchange gases.
• Type III cells that destroy foreign material, such as bacteria.

The alveoli have an innate tendency to collapse (atelectasis) because of their spherical shape, small size, and surface tension due to water vapor. Phospholipids, which are called surfactants, and pores help to equalize pressures and prevent collapse.

Pulmonary gas exchange

Human alveolus

Pulmonary gas exchange is driven by passive diffusion and thus does not require energy for exchange. Substances move down a concentration gradient. Oxygen moves from the alveoli (high oxygen concentration) to the blood (lower oxygen concentration, due to the continuous consumption of oxygen in the body). Conversely, carbon dioxide is produced by metabolism and has a higher concentration in the blood than in the air.

Oxygen in the lungs first diffuses through the alveolar wall and dissolves in the fluid phase of blood. The amount of oxygen dissolved in the fluid phase is governed by Henry's Law. Oxygen dissolved in the blood may diffuse into red blood cells and bind to hemoglobin. Binding of oxygen to hemoglobin allows a greater amount of oxygen to be transported in the blood. Although carbon dioxide and oxygen are the most important molecules exchanged, other gases are also transported between the alveoli and blood. The amount of a gas that is exchanged depends on the water solubility of the gas and the affinity of the gas for hemoglobin. Water vapor is also excreted through the lungs, due to humidification of inspired air by the lung tissues.

Red blood cells transit the alveolar capillaries in about 3/4 of a second.

• Most gases (including carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide) reach equilibrium with the blood before the red blood cells leave the alveolar capillaries. Gases that reach equilibrium before the blood leaves the alveolar capillaries are perfusion limited, since the amount of the gas exchanged depends solely on the volumetric flow rate of blood past the alveoli.

• However, carbon monoxide is stored in such high concentrations in the blood, due to its strong binding to hemoglobin, that equilibrium is not reached before the blood leaves the alveolar capillary. Thus, the concentration of carbon monoxide in the arterial system can be used to assess the resistance of the alveolar walls to gas diffusion. Transport of carbon monoxide is thus termed diffusion limited.

Oxygen is normally perfusion limited, but in disease conditions it can be diffusion limited.

Defense against pathogens

The lungs are constantly exposed to airborne pathogens and dust particles. The body employs many defenses to protect the lungs, including tonsils in the nasopharynx which traps germs, small hairs (cilia) lining the trachea and bronchi supporting a constant stream of mucus out of the lungs, and reflex coughing and sneezing to dislodge mucus contaminated with dust particles or micro-organisms. The windpipe (trachea) divides into 2 airways the right and left bronchus

Diseases

• Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a severe inflammatory disease of the lung. Usually triggered by other pulmonary pathology, the uncontrolled inflammation leads to impaired gas exchange, alveolar flooding and/or collapse, and systemic inflammatory response syndrome. It usually requires mechanical ventilation in an intensive care unit setting.

• Infant respiratory distress syndrome (IRDS) is a syndrome caused by lack of surfactant in the lungs of premature infants.

• In asthma, the bronchioles, or the "bottle-necks" into the sac are restricted causing the amount of air flow into the lungs to be greatly reduced. It can be triggered by irritants in the air, photochemical smog for example, as well as substances that a person is allergic to.

• Emphysema is another disease of the lungs, whereby the elastin in the walls of the alveoli is broken down by an imbalance between the production of neutrophil elastase (elevated by cigarette smoke) and alpha-1-antitrypsin (the activity varies due to genetics or reaction of a critical methionine residue with toxins including cigarette smoke). The resulting loss of elasticity in the lungs leads to prolonged times for exhalation, which occurs through passive recoil of the expanded lung. This leads to a smaller volume of gas exchanged per breath.

• Chronic bronchitis occurs when an abundance mucus is produced by the lungs. The production of this substance occurs naturally when the lung tissue is exposed to irritants. In chronic bronchitis, the air passages into the alveoli, the broncholiotes, become clogged with mucus. This causes increased coughing in order to remove the mucus, and is often a result of extended periods of exposure to cigarette smoke.

• Cystic fibrosis is a genetic condition caused by the dysfunction of a transmembrane protein responsible for the transport of chloride ions. This causes huge amounts of mucus to clog the bronchiolites, similar to chronic bronchitis. The result is a persistent cough and reduced lung capacity.

• Diffuse interstitial fibrosis

• Lung cancer is a common form of cancer causing the uncontrolled growth of cells in the lung tissue. Due to the sensitivity of lung tissue, such malignant growth is often hard to treat effectively.

• Pneumonia is an infection of the alveoli, which can be caused by both viruses and bacteria. Toxins and fluids are released from the virus causing the effective surface area of the lungs to be greatly reduced. If this happens to such a degree that the patient cannot draw enough oxygen from his environment, then the victim may need supplemental oxygen.

• Cavitary pneumonia is a process in which the alveoli are destroyed and produce a cavity. As the alveoli are destroyed, the surface area for gas exchange to occur becomes reduced. Further changes in blood flow can lead to decline in lung function.

See also

• Alveolar gas pressures

Additional images

Bronchial anatomy

References

External links

• MeSH Pulmonary+Alveoli

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