Albert Sabin: Biography from Answers.com

The Polish-American physician and virologist Albert Bruce Sabin (1906-1993) developed the first effective and widely used live virus polio vaccine.

Born in Poland, Sabin emigrated to the United States with his parents in 1921 in order to avoid persecutions directed against Jews. After attending New York University as a pre-dental student he switched to medical school and to an interest in microbiology. Upon receiving his medical degree in 1931, Sabin immediately began research on the nature and cause of polio, an acute viral infection that could result in death or paralysis. This disease had reached epidemic proportions affecting people around the world. During his internship at Bellevue Hospital in New York City, Sabin successfully isolated the B virus from a colleague who had died after a bite from a monkey. Sabin was soon able to prove the B virus's relation to the herpes simplex virus, the cause of herpes in humans.

Sabin joined the staff of the Rockefeller Institute in New York City in 1935 and four years later left for a post at the Children's Hospital Research Foundation in Cincinnati, Ohio. It was there that he proved that polio viruses not only grew in nervous tissue, as was generally assumed, but that they lived in the small intestines. By introducing the idea of enteroviruses - viruses that lived in the gut - Sabin established that poliomyelitis was essentially an infection of the alimentary tract. This discovery indicated that poliomyelitis might be vulnerable to a vaccine taken orally.

Sabin's work on a poliomyelitis vaccine was interrupted by World War II. In 1941 he joined the U.S. Army Epidemiological Board's Virus Committee and accepted assignments in Europe, Africa, the Middle East, and the Pacific. During this phase of his career Sabin developed vaccines for encephalitis (sleeping sickness), sand-fly fever, and dengue fever. At the war's end Sabin returned to Cincinnati and to his research on the polio virus.

Convinced that the polio virus in nature lived primarily in the intestines, Sabin resolved to make the human gut a hostile environment for it. This he intended to accomplish by isolating a mutant form of the polio virus that was incapable of producing the disease. The avirulent virus would then be propagated and introduced into the intestines, where it would reproduce rapidly, displacing the lethal virulent forms of the polio virus and protecting the human host from the disease. Sabin's goal from the outset was to find a live and safe variant polio virus that could be administered orally to combat poliomyelitis.

After an intensive investigation during which he discovered a number of new enteroviruses, Sabin managed to isolate the viruses he sought. Sabin and his research associates first ingested the live avirulent viruses themselves before they experimented on other human subjects. For two years (1955-1957) he gave the vaccine to hundreds of prison inmates with no harmful effects. At this point Sabin was ready for large-scale tests, but he could not carry them out in the United States. A rival polio vaccine developed by Dr. Jonas Salk in 1954 was then being tested for its efficacy in preventing the disease among American school children.

Whereas Sabin thought an attenuated live virus diluted and weakened would be effective, Salk was determined to create a vaccine using a killed form of the virus.

Some foreign virologists, especially those from the U.S.S.R., were convinced of the superiority of the Sabin vaccine, and hence it was first subjected to widespread tests outside the United States from 1957 to 1959. Millions of Russians, and millions more living in Latvia, Estonia, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, and East Germany, gained protection from poliomyelitis with Sabin's vaccine. A much smaller group of persons living in Sweden, England, Singapore, and the United States received Sabin's vaccine by the end of 1959.

In the meantime the Salk vaccine experienced some problems that made the American medical community more receptive to the solution proposed by Sabin. Salk's vaccine, which utilized killed virulent polioviruses, was accidently contaminated with some live virulent polioviruses which subsequently brought death or severe illness to several hundred school children. In addition, the Salk vaccine was somewhat difficult to administer (it was necessary to inject it into the body) and it was effective for a relatively short time (less than a year).

Sabin took advantage of this situation by vigorously promoting his vaccine. It was, he said, free of virulent viruses, easily administered orally, and effective over a long period of time. The battle that ensued between the supporters of the Salk and Sabin vaccines was finally won by the Sabin forces and hence it was a live virus vaccine that was used in the United States and the rest of the world to eradicate poliomyelitis. The battle between Salk and Sabin went on for years. Salk denounced Sabin's vaccine in 1973 as being unsafe and tried to persuade the public to use his vaccine again. But he was ignored by many, and by 1993 health organizations reported the near-extinction of the polio disease in the Western Hemisphere.

The success of his polio vaccine brought Sabin many honors at home and abroad. Always a tireless researcher, Sabin did not rest upon his laurels but moved on to a new field of study - the viral origins of human cancer. After more than a decade of work he was forced in 1977 to conclude that cancers were not caused by viruses as he had first assumed. During this time he served as research professor at the University of South Carolina until taking an emeritus status in 1982. In 1980 he traveled to Brazil to deal with a new outbreak of polio, and retired from medicine in 1986. Until his death on March 3, 1993, of heart failure, Sabin continued to add wood to the fire, speaking out against many ideals, including his doubts that a vaccine should be developed to fight the human immunodeficiency virus, or HIV, which causes AIDS.

Albert Sabin

Born	August 26, 1906(1906-08-26) Białystok, Russia
Died	March 3, 1993 (aged 86) Washington, D.C
Citizenship	United States
Nationality	Poland
Fields	immunology
Alma mater	New York University
Known for	oral polio vaccine
Notable awards	see article

Life

Sabin was born in Białystok, Russia (now Poland), to Jewish parents, Jacob and Tillie Saperstein, in 1921 he immigrated with his family to America. In 1930 he became a naturalized citizen of the United States and changed his name to Sabin.

Sabin received a medical degree from New York University in 1931. He trained in internal medicine, pathology and surgery at Bellevue Hospital in New York City from 1931-1933. In 1934 he conducted research at The Lister Institute for Preventive Medicine in England, then joined the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research (now Rockefeller University). During this time he developed an intense interest in research, especially in the area of infectious diseases. In 1939 he moved to Cincinnati Children's Hospital in Cincinnati, Ohio. During World War II he was a lieutenant colonel in the U.S. Army Medical Corps and helped develop vaccines against dengue fever and Japanese encephalitis. Maintaining his association with Children's Hospital, by 1946 he had also become the head of Pediatric Research at the University of Cincinnati. In 1969-1972 he lived and worked in Israel as the President of Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot. After his return to the United States he worked (1974-1982) as a Research Professor at the University of South Carolina. He later moved to Washington, D.C. area where he was a Resident Scholar at the John E. Fogarty International Center on NIH campus in Bethesda, MD.

Polio Research

With the menace of polio growing, Sabin and other researchers, most notably Jonas Salk in Pittsburgh and Hilary Koprowski and Herald Cox in New York and Philadelphia, sought a vaccine to prevent or mitigate the illness. In 1955, Salk's "killed" vaccine was released for use. It was effective in preventing most of the complications of polio, but did not prevent the initial, intestinal infection. In addition, those who received the Salk vaccine could pass on the polio virus. Sabin first tested his live attenuated oral vaccine at the SabinChillicothe Ohio Reformatory in late 1954. From 1956-1960 he worked with Russian colleagues to perfect the oral vaccine and prove its extraordinary effectiveness and safety. The Sabin vaccine worked in the intestines to block the poliovirus from entering the bloodstream. It was in the intestines, Sabin discovered, the poliovirus multiplied and attacked. Thus, the oral vaccine broke the chain of transmission of the virus and made possible the world wide eradication of polio.

Between 1955-1960, the oral vaccine was tested on at least 100 million people in the USSR, parts of Eastern Europe, Singapore, Mexico and the Netherlands. The first industrial production and mass use of Oral Poliovirus Vaccine (OPV) from Sabin strains was organized by Soviet scientist Mikhail Chumakov ^[1]^[2]. This provided the critical impetus for allowing large scale clinical trial of OPV in the United States in April 1960 on 180,000 Cincinnati school children. The mass immunization techniques that Sabin pioneered with his associates effectively eradicated polio in Cincinnati. Against considerable opposition from The March of Dimes Foundation, which supported the relatively effective killed vaccine, Sabin prevailed on the Public Health Service to license his three strains of vaccine. While the PHS stalled, the USSR sent millions of doses of the oral vaccine to places with polio epidemics, such as Japan, and reaped the humanitarian benefit. Indeed it was not clear to many that the vaccine was an American one, financed by US dollars, but not available to ordinary Americans.

Sabin vs. Salk vaccine controversy

Sabin vehemently opposed the use of the Salk inactivated vaccine and attempted to block its use.

In 1983, Sabin developed calcification of the cervical spine, which caused paralysis and intense pain. ^[3] ^[4] According to Keith Olbermann, Sabin revealed in a television interview that the experience had made him decide to spend the rest of his life working on alleviating pain.^[5] This condition was successfully treated by surgery conducted at Johns Hopkins Hospital in 1992 when Sabin was 86.

Honors

Election to the Polio Hall of Fame, which was dedicated in Warm Springs, Georgia, on January 2, 1958
National Medal of Science (1970)
Presidential Medal of Freedom (1986)
In 1999, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center named its new education and conference center for Sabin.
In March 2006, the US Postal Service issued a commemorative 87-cent postage stamp carrying his image, in its Distinguished Americans series. ^[6]

References

^ Sabin, A.B. Role of my cooperation with Soviet scientists in the elimination of polio: possible lessons for relations between the U.S.A. and the USSR. Perspect Biol Med. 1987 Autumn; 31(1):57-64.
^ Benison, S. International Medical Cooperation: Dr. Albert Sabin, Live Poliovirus Vaccine and the Soviets. Bulletin of the History of Medicine 56 (1982), 460-83.
^ Philip Boffey, Sabin, Paralyzed, Tells of Death Wish. In the New York Times, November 27, 1983.
^ Ezra Bowen, The Doctor Whose Vaccine Saved Millions from Polio Battles Back from a Near-Fatal Paralysis. In People, July 2, 1984.
^ Health Care; The Fight Against Death. Special comment by Keith Olbermann on Countdown, 2009-10-07.
^ USPS press release.

Saldías G, Ernesto (December 2006). "[Centennary of Albert B. Sabin MD birthdate]". Revista chilena de infectología : órgano oficial de la Sociedad Chilena de Infectología 23 (4): 368–9. doi:/S0716-10182006000400013 (inactive 2008-06-25). PMID 17186087.
Smith, Derek R; Leggat Peter A (2005). "Pioneering figures in medicine: Albert Bruce Sabin--inventor of the oral polio vaccine". The Kurume medical journal 52 (3): 111–6. doi:10.2739/kurumemedj.52.111. PMID 16422178.
Emed, A (April 2000). "[Albert B Sabin (1906-1993)]". Harefuah 138 (8): 702–3. PMID 10883218.
Chanock, R M (March 1996). "Reminiscences of Albert Sabin and his successful strategy for the development of the live oral poliovirus vaccine". Proc. Assoc. Am. Physicians 108 (2): 117–26. PMID 8705731.
Dalakas, M C (May 1995). "Opening remarks. On post-polio syndrome and in honor of Dr. Albert B. Sabin". Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 753: xi-xiv. PMID 7611615.
Beumer, J (1994). "[Academic eulogy of Professor Albert Bruce Sabin, foreign honorary member]". Bull. Mem. Acad. R. Med. Belg. 149 (5-7): 220–4. PMID 7795544.
Horaud, F (December 1993). "Albert B. Sabin and the development of oral poliovaccine". Biologicals 21 (4): 311–6. doi:10.1006/biol.1993.1089. PMID 8024745.
Melnick, J L; Horaud F (December 1993). "Albert B. Sabin". Biologicals 21 (4): 297–303. doi:10.1006/biol.1993.1087. PMID 8024743.
"Homage to Albert Sabin". Biologicals 21 (4): 295–384. December 1993. PMID 8024742.
Newsom, B (June 1993). "In memoriam: Albert B. Sabin, M.D., 1906-1993". Journal of the South Carolina Medical Association (1975) 89 (6): 311. PMID 8320975.
Grouse, L D (April 1993). "Albert Bruce Sabin". JAMA 269 (16): 2140. doi:10.1001/jama.269.16.2140. PMID 8468772.
Koprowski, H (April 1993). "Albert B. Sabin (1906-1993)". Nature 362 (6420): 499. doi:10.1038/362499a0. PMID 8464487.
Sabin, A B; Ramos-Alvarez M, Alvarez-Amezquita J, Pelon W, Michaels R H, Spigland I, Koch M A, Barnes J M, Rhim J S (June 1984). "Landmark article Aug 6, 1960: Live, orally given poliovirus vaccine. Effects of rapid mass immunization on population under conditions of massive enteric infection with other viruses. By Albert B. Sabin, Manuel Ramos-Alvarez, José Alvarez-Amezquita, William Pelon, Richard H. Michaels, Ilya Spigland, Meinrad A. Koch, Joan M. Barnes, and Johng S. Rhim". JAMA 251 (22): 2988–93. PMID 6371279.
Benison, S (1982). "International medical cooperation: Dr. Albert Sabin, live poliovirus vaccine and the Soviets". Bulletin of the history of medicine 56 (4): 460–83. PMID 6760938.
Dixon, B (December 1977). "Medicine and the media: polio still paralyses (Albert Sabin, Jonas Salk)". British journal of hospital medicine 18 (6): 595. PMID 342023.
Draffin, R W (January 1977). "Citation for Dr. Albert B. Sabin of Charleston, S.C. on presentation of Honorary Fellowship 1976". The Journal of the American College of Dentists 44 (1): 28–30. PMID 320241.

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National Medal of Science laureates

Behavioral and social science

1960s	1964: Roger Adams · Othmar H. Ammann · Theodosius Dobzhansky · Neal Elgar Miller

1980s	1986: Herbert A. Simon 1987: Anne Anastasi · George J. Stigler 1988: Milton Friedman

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Biological sciences

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1970s	1970: Barbara McClintock · Albert B. Sabin 1973: Daniel I. Arnon · Earl W. Sutherland, Jr. 1974: Britton Chance · Erwin Chargaff · James V. Neel · James Augustine Hannon 1975: Hallowell Davis · Paul Gyorgy · Sterling Brown Hendricks · Orville lvin Vogel 1976: Roger C.L. Guillemin · Keith Roberts Porter · Efraim Racker · E. O. Wilson 1979: Robert H. Burris · Elizabeth C. Crosby · Arthur Kornberg · Severo Ochoa · Earl Reece Stadtman · George Ledyard Stebbins · Paul Alfred Weiss

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Chemistry

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2000s	2000: John D. Baldeschwieler · Ralph F. Hirschmann 2001: Ernest R. Davidson · Gabor A. Somorjai 2002: John I. Brauman 2004: Stephen J. Lippard 2006: Marvin H. Caruthers · Peter B. Dervan 2007: Mostafa A. El-Sayed

Engineering sciences

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1970s	1970: George E. Mueller 1973: Harold E. Edgerton · Richard T. Whitcomb 1974: Rudolf Kompfner · Ralph Brazelton Peck · Abel Wolman 1975: Manson Benedict · William Hayward Pickering · Frederick E. Terman · Wernher von Braun 1976: Morris Cohen · Peter C. Goldmark · Erwin Wilhelm Müller 1979: Emmett N. Leith · Raymond D. Mindlin · Robert N. Noyce · Earl R. Parker · Simon Ramo

1980s	1982: Edward H. Heinemann · Donald L. Katz 1983: William R. Hewlett · George M. Low · John G. Trump 1986: Hans Wolfgang Liepmann · T. Y. Lin · Bernard M. Oliver 1987: Robert B. Bird · H. Bolton Seed · Ernst Weber 1988: Daniel C. Drucker · Willis M. Hawkins · George W. Housner 1989: Harry George Drickamer · Herbert E. Grier

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Mathematical, statistical, and computer sciences

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Physical sciences

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1970s	1970: Robert H. Dicke · Allan R. Sandage · John C. Slater · John A. Wheeler · Saul Winstein 1973: Carl Djerassi · Maurice Ewing · Arie Jan Haagen-Smit · Vladimir Haensel · Frederick Seitz · Robert Rathbun Wilson 1974: Nicolaas Bloembergen · Paul Flory · William Alfred Fowler · Linus Carl Pauling · Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer 1975: Hans A. Bethe · Joseph Hirschfelder · Lewis Sarett · E. Bright Wilson · Chien-Shiung Wu 1976: Samuel Goudsmit · Herbert S. Gutowsky · Frederick Rossini · Verner Suomi · Henry Taube · George Uhlenbeck 1979: Richard P. Feynman · Herman Mark · Edward M. Purcell · John Sinfelt · Lyman Spitzer · Victor F. Weisskopf

1980s	1982: Philip W. Anderson · Yoichiro Nambu · Edward Teller · Charles H. Townes 1983: E. Margaret Burbidge · Maurice Goldhaber · Helmut Landsberg · Walter Munk · Frederick Reines · Bruno B. Rossi · J. Robert Schrieffer 1986: Solomon Buchsbaum · Horace Crane · Herman Feshbach · Robert Hofstadter · Chen Ning Yang 1987: Philip Abelson · Walter Elsasser · Paul C. Lauterbur · George Pake · James A. Van Allen 1988: D. Allan Bromley · Paul Ching-Wu Chu · Walter Kohn · Norman F. Ramsey · Jack Steinberger 1989: Arnold O. Beckman · Eugene Parker · Robert Sharp · Henry Stommel

1990s	1990: Allan M. Cormack · Edwin M. McMillan · Robert Pound · Roger Revelle 1991: Arthur L. Schawlow · Ed Stone · Steven Weinberg 1992: Eugene M. Shoemaker 1993: Val Fitch · Vera Rubin 1994: Albert Overhauser · Frank Press 1995: Hans Dehmelt · Peter Goldreich 1996: Wallace S. Broecker 1997: Marshall Rosenbluth · Martin Schwarzschild · George Wetherill 1998: Don L. Anderson · John N. Bahcall 1999: James Cronin · Leo Kadanoff

2000s	2000: Willis E. Lamb · Jeremiah P. Ostriker · Gilbert F. White 2001: Marvin L. Cohen · Raymond Davis Jr. · Charles Keeling 2002: Richard Garwin · W. Jason Morgan · Edward Witten 2003: G. Brent Dalrymple · Riccardo Giacconi 2004: Robert N. Clayton 2005: Ralph A. Alpher · Lonnie Thompson 2006: Daniel Kleppner 2007: Fay Ajzenberg-Selove · Charles P. Slichter

Persondata
NAME	Sabin, Albert
ALTERNATIVE NAMES
SHORT DESCRIPTION	Physician and epidemiologist
DATE OF BIRTH	August 26, 1906
PLACE OF BIRTH	Białystok, Russia
DATE OF DEATH	March 3, 1993
PLACE OF DEATH	Washington, D.C., USA

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Albert Sabin

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