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Alevi

A sect of Shiʿite Muslims in Turkey.

Alevis are the adherents of a belief system fitting loosely under a Shiʿite rubric; they constitute a significant minority in contemporary Turkey. Although no reliable statistics exist, estimates of their numbers run as high as 20 percent of Turkey's population, or somewhere between ten million and fifteen million people. Depending on the observer's political or social agenda, they have been understood to be a religious sect for some purposes and an ethnic minority group for others. Categorization ultimately proves futile, as the term Alevi refers to a number of diverse groups, all maintaining different levels of identification with Alevi-ness (in Turkish, Alevilik) and with each other. Scholars have posited numerous theories about Alevi influences and origins. Alevis are variously believed to be the descendants of Neoplatonists, gnostics, Manicheanists, Zoroastrians, pantheists, and early Anatolian Christian cults. Some of these lines of cultural descent would place them closer to Kurdish and Iranian elements than to Turkish. A popular theory, advocated by some nationalist politicians as well by as some Alevi leaders, links them with pre-Islamic Turkic belief systems (frequently mislabeled shamanism).

Language and Beliefs

Many Alevis living in the predominantly Kurdish regions of eastern Anatolia, particularly in the Dersim (Tunceli) region - the spiritual/historical heart of Kurdish Alevis - speak one of the indigenous Kurdish languages. Others, in southern Anatolia near the Syrian border, speak Arabic, while many in western Anatolia speak Turkish. Groups such as the Shabak Kurds of northern Iraq are also Alevis. By contrast, the Ahl-e Haqq of Iran, although they share some concepts and institutions with the Alevis, diverge historically and in their ritual practices and beliefs. However, most of these groups recognize a sacred hierarchy that includes a trinity consisting of Allah, the prophet Muhammad, and his cousin and son-in-law Ali; they also revere the twelve imams who are central to mainstream Shiʿism.

After these, the next most important figure in Alevi belief is the saint Haci Bektaş Veli, who settled with his followers in the Kir Şehir region of central Anatolia in the thirteenth century. A village bearing his name, Haci Bektaş Köyü, became the center of this group of dervishes, and a large tekke (local headquarters for Sufi orders) and a medrese (Ar. Madrasa; religious school) - still important today - were established there. Presumably Haci Bektaş Veli was part of a larger movement of Turkmen babas practicing a mystical tradition influenced by Ahmet Yesevi, the central Asian Sufi whose tomb remains an important pilgrimage site. Bektashis were associated with the Ottoman Janissary corps; Janissaries styled their headgear after the cloak said to have been worn by Haci Bektaş Veli. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the reformist Young Turks counted Bektashis among their members, as did the Freemasons.

History and Traditions

The history and traditions of the followers of Haci Bektaş Veli, the Bektashis, overlap with Alevis. However, in some respects Bektashis function much like many Sufi orders. Among the Bektashis, there has been a distinction between Yol Evladi (children of the Path) and Bel Evladi (natural descendants). The former believe that Haci Bektaş was celibate, and membership in the order can only be accomplished through study with a murşit, or spiritual guide, and eventual initiation at an ayin-i cem. The dedebaba, the leader of the entire order, is elected by their babas. The Bel Evladi segment believe that Haci Bektaş married, begot a son, and that the order's leadership since that time should go to his descendants, the Çelebis. Çelebis need not go through initiation (although their followers, talips, must be initiated). Many Alevis concur with the Bel Evladi interpretation.

In the past, and to a lesser extent today, some village-based Alevis have been the talips, the client-disciples, of a Bektashi effendi, or Çelebi based in the tekke of Haci Bektaş Köyü, who might have visited them annually, collected tribute, officiated at an ayin-i cem, and mediated in disputes. Other Alevi villages have maintained the talip relationship with pirs, members of holy lineages not directly related to the Bektashis.

The central communal ritual for Alevis, as for Bektashis, is the ayin-i cem, held, if in a village, in a cem evi. Sites for the ritual exist in Turkish (and European) cities as well, often as part of Alevi cultural centers. The pirs officiate over the symbolic reenactment of the martyrdoms of Hasan and Hüseyin (Husayn), the second and third of the twelve imams, by dousing twelve candles, which is accompanied by impassioned wailing. Some groups of Alevis include wine or raki as part of the cem. Past and present aşiks or ozans (minstrels) are revered, and an essential component of the cem is the playing and singing of the poetry and songs of early Alevis such as Pir Sultan Abdal and Hataʿi (pseudonym of Shah Ismaʿil Safavi). The songs sung in a cem are called nefes by Bektashis and deyiş by village Alevis. Düvaz (short for Düvazdeh imam, the twelve imams) are the most sacred of the songs sung at a cem. The poetry can be understood on multiple levels; ostensible love songs also refer to mystical aspects of the relationship between humans and God, for example. Music typically is played on the saz, a plucked instrument resembling a long-necked lute, sometimes said to be the embodiment of Ali. The strumming and fingering can be complex, demanding a high level of technical virtuosity; many of the rhythms are repetitive, conducive to the semah, trance-inducing dancing performed in the ayin-i cem.

Beliefs and Practices

Other beliefs and practices of many Alevis include fasting during the first twelve days of Muharram and the celebration of Nevruz. A well-known Alevi precept is eline, diline, beline, sahip ol (be the master of your hands, tongue, and loins). This guides behavior for Alevis, who avoid making an outward show of their piety at the expense of inner purity. This is consonant with the permitted practice of taqiyya (dis-simulation). Taqiyya reflects the pervasive belief in esotericism, which emphasized the internal, the unseen, the purity of one's heart. Many Alevi beliefs have been codified and inscribed in Buyruk (decree), believed by some to be the collected sayings of Imam Cafer-i Sadik, the sixth of the twelve imams.

Other religious tenets include a belief in divine incarnations and in reincarnation. Spiritual guidance is manifested in the hierarchy of the four gates of şeriat, tarikat, hakikat, and marifet. Alevis are differentiated from Sunnis in their attitudes and practices surrounding the social and ritual status of women. An Alevi saying, kadin, toplumun annesidir (woman is the mother of society), summarizes the central role of women, who are integral to the cem ceremony and can take leading roles. It is uncommon to see Alevi women wearing headscarves in urban settings. In villages they may; however, their scarves do not cover all their hair. This is consistent with a belief system that values the inner aspects of life more highly than the external.

Politics and History

As a minority that explicitly opposed the hegemonic Sunni power of the Ottoman Empire, the Alevis have been seen as threatening and have long been subject to persecution. The pejorative sobriquet kizilbaş (redhead) derives from an implication that they were traitors, in league with the Iranian Safavi Empire and its founder, Shah Ismaʿil, who established a similar form of Shiʿism as the dominant religion of his realm; the terminology thus has its origins in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In 1925, republican Turkey closed all Sufi orders, tarikats, and tekkes; banned the use of related titles; and prohibited certain practices; the Alevis were driven underground in their religious practices.

A sense of victimization and martyrdom pervades the Alevi worldview. Subject to persecution and massacres throughout their history, Alevis revere and identify with ancestral martyrs. Twentieth-century massacres and oppression are conceptualized in mytho-historical terms, as part of the cultural logic of their understanding of history. Killings and attacks in Malatya, Kahraman Maraş, and Çorum in the late 1970s, and in Sivas in 1993, serve as proof for many Alevis of the persistence of persecution. The attacks in the 1970s, many perpetrated by right-wing Sunnis, were incited by the fascist National Movement Party and depended on the collusion of local police and the army, many of whom identified the Alevi not only with immorality and religious heresy but also with communism.

In the 1970s and 1980s many Alevi youth, particularly from the Dersim area, were attracted by Maoism; with the collapse of the left in Turkey, this was one of the few surviving outposts. Some of these activists moved away from the Turkish Maoists and developed an Alevi variant, proposing the ethnic basis of Alevilik, and advocating an Alevistan or Zazaistan as the rightful homeland of the Zazas. Such movements have been stronger in the European Alevi diaspora than in Turkey. One of the consequences was that the PKK, the dominant Kurdish nationalist group, vied for Alevi allegiance and in 1994 established a publication, Zülfikar, laden with Alevi symbolism and meant to attract Alevi adherents. The PKK also attempted to win Alevi followers by adopting an anti-Turkish-state stance, associating state oppression with Turkish Bektashi-ism. Ultimately many Dersim Alevis were forced through threats of violence to choose sides.

Beginning in the late 1980s, a resurgence of Alevilik emerged both in Turkey and in the European Alevi diaspora. In Turkey, numerous publications appeared in bookstores, Alevilik was discussed in the national press, and there were efforts to establish a special Alevi desk at the Directorate of Religion in Ankara. No longer associated exclusively with the political left, some Alevis have moved to the right. In the 1980s, the popular annual festival at Haci Bektaş Köyü began to be patronized by politicians of all persuasions, eager to win over the Alevi electorate; the state became a sponsor of the festival as sanctions against Alevi self-expression were lifted. Official support may have been meant "to counterbalance the growth of Sunni Islamism, but also to stop Kurdish nationalism making further inroads among Kurdish Alevis. There was some pressure to emphasize the Turkishness of Alevism." Since the 1990s, Alevi organizations and publications have proliferated in Turkey and Europe (predominantly in Germany). Internet technology has fostered new expressions of Alevilik, as it has facilitated transnational links.

Bibliography

Markoff, Irene. "Music, Saints, and Ritual: Sama and the Alevis of Turkey." In Manifestations of Sainthood in Islam, edited by Grace Martin Smith and Carl W. Ernst. Istanbul: The Isis Press, 1993.

Olsson, Tord; Özdalga, Elisabeth; and Raudvere, Catharina, eds. Alevi Identity: Cultural, Religious and Social Perspectives: Papers Read at a Conference Held at the Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul, November 25 - 27, 1996. Istanbul: Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul, 1998.

Van Bruinessen, Martin. "'Aslini inkar eden haramzadedir!' The debate on the Ethnic Identity of the Kurdish Alevis." In Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East: Collected Papers of the International Symposium "Alevism in Turkey and Comparable Sycretistic Religious Communities in the Near East in the Past and Present": Berlin, 14 - 17 April 1995, edited by Krisztina Kehl-Bodrogi, Barbara Kellner-Heinkele, and Anke Otter-Beaujean. New York; Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1997.

Van Bruinessen, Martin. "Kurds, Turks, and the Alevi Revival." Middle East Report 200 (summer 1996): 7 - 10.

Van Bruinessen, Martin. "The Shabak, a Kizilbash community in Iraqi Kurdistan." Les annales de l'autre Islam 5 (1998): 185 - 196.

— RUTH MANDEL

 
 
Wikipedia: Alevi

Part of a series on Twelver Shia Islam
Alevism

Alevi.jpg
Figures

Ali-Muhammad • Shah Ismail
Hajji Bektash Wali • Ataturk
Twelve Imams

Ali · Hasan · Husayn
al-Sajjad · al-Baqir · al-Sadiq
al-Kazim · al-Rida · al-Taqi
al-Hadi · al-Askari · al-Mahdi
Beliefs

Haqq-Ali-Muhammad
Four Doors • Insan-i Kamil
The Qur'an • The Buyruk
Wahdat-ul-Wujood
Zahir • Batin
Practices

Fasting • Semah • Music
Charity • Intercession • Taqiyya
Dushkunluk Meydani
Structure

Dedes • Murshid • Pir
Rehber • Darga • Jem
Cem Evi • Babas
Events

Nowruz • Ashura
Hindrellez
Groups

Bektashi • Kizilbash
Marxists • Kemalists


Alevis or Alevi-Bektashis (Turkish: 'Aleviler' or Alevilik, Kurdish: Elewî) are a religious community in Turkey, making up approximately 20% of the population of the country. There are also familiar Bektashi communities in Albania, Republic of Macedonia, Bosnia and Bulgaria due to the presence of the Ottoman Janissaries during Ottoman times.

Alevism is a Shia Islamic belief, meaning that they are politically attached to the 4th Islamic Caliph, Imam Ali and the Imamah and do not recognize the first 3 Caliphs. However, this is the extent of similarity between Alevism and Orthodox Shia beliefs. Shia is a term used for any beliefs having its main structure relying on following the path of Imam Ali, no matter how different they are. Other Shia groups are Ismailis (Nizaris & Bohras), Zaidis, Jafaris, Oveyssi, Kubrawiya, Alawis, Bektashism, Nurbakshis.

Contrary to the mainstream orthodox Muslims of the World, Alevism is a heterodox belief. Whilst orthodox Islam possess a tradition of authoritative religious scholarship backed by carriers of formal learning, Alevism lacks both.

The influence of Alevism can be seen in various related movements, doctrines, ideas, rituals and traditions such as Qizilbashism, Bektashism, Hurufism, Qalandariyah, Wafaism, Haydarism, Babaism etc., its strength lying in shared local traditions and esoteric interpretations of Islamic belief and practice.

Modern Alevi theology has been profoundly influenced by humanism and universalism. Thus, while many of the older generation view Alevism as a religious belief, many of the younger generation prefer to term it a philosophy, some even making connections with Marxism. Alevi communities are strong supporters of Kemalism due to its strong secularist ideology.

Etymology

The Arabic name Alevi is best defined as "of Ali" or "pertaining to Ali." The name is derived from Ali, son-in-law and cousin of the Prophet Muhammad and, along with Muhammad, the central figure of Shi'a belief. This explanation is the one traditionally accepted by Alevis.

Some researchers suggest the word Alevi might have been derived from the Turkish word Alev which means flame.

Alevis

Adherents of Alevism (Alevîlik) are called Alevis. The exact number of Alevis is not known, with estimates varying between 15% to 35% of the population of Turkey alone, i.e. 10 - 25 million believers in Turkey.

Besides the Alevis of Turkey there are significant number of Bektashis scattered around the Balkans with Albania being the center of these Bektashis.

In Northwestern Iran and Northern Iraq there are similar beliefs such as Ibrahimi, Sarliyya, Kakai, Shabak and Ahl-i Haqq. The adherents of these beliefs are mainly Kurds and some Turcomans. The number of these adherents are not accurately known, but estimates points toward some millions.

Both Bektashis Qizilbash Alevis revere Hajji Bektash Wali, a saint of the 13th century. The Turkish language and Kirmancki language is used in Alevi rituals and while worshipping.

History

After the death of Muhammad his followers were divided over who should lead the Muslim community. The forebears of today's Sunni majority elected Abu Bakr, while the modern day Shia are the descendants of those who maintained that Ali, the son-in-law of Muhammad, was his legitimate successor. This rift was widened when Hüseyin, grandson of Mohammed was killed in the Battle of Karbala, an event which is memorized intensively by Alevis and Shias alike. The Alevis also recognize twelve Imams similar to the Twelver community.

Sufism has also had an important influence on the Alevi traditions. The Sufi philosopher Hajji Bektash Wali, who spent most of his life as a missionary from an Iranian based sufism sect among Turkish tribes in Central Asia and Anatolia during the 13th century, is highly revered. Most of his followers belonged to the Turkmen tribes. The tribes, who tried to keep their traditional customs, often stood in opposition to the Seljuk and later the Ottoman Empire. In the late 15th century, a militant Shia order, the Qizilbash, fought with the Safavids against the Ottomans. After Safavids lost their power, they were assumed to have been absorbed into the Anatolian Alevis. Kurdish Alevis are sometimes still called Qizilbash ("Red head", derived from the head wear of the believers which included a red piece of cloth, hence the name). Even as far East as Pakistan, many Shias have "Qizilbash" as their family names. [1]

According to Alevists, one of Imam Ali's most revered quotes addressing his followers had been, "Be a child of your own times!", meaning, go with the requirements of the historical era in which you live; follow what is best for you as the changes in time and place might change the course of your personal as well as your ethnic life.

People

Alevis in Turkey[citation needed]
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Alevis in Turkey[citation needed]

Ethnic groups that have Alevi adherents mainly include Turks (Turks & Azeris), Kurds (Kurmanji & Kirmancki/Zaza) with a particular concentration in central Anatolia in a belt from Chorum in the west to Mush in the east. The only province within Turkey with an Alevi majority is Tunceli, formerly known as Dersim.

In addition, many Alevi have migrated to the large cities of western and southern Turkey, as well as to western Europe, especially Germany.

Today, the Alevi community in Turkey is heavily urbanised due to mass migration (1960s to present) from their often mountainous and barren rural home districts to cities.

There are also large communities of Alevis in some regions of Iranian Azerbaijan. The town of Ilkhichi (İlxıçı), which is located 87 km south west of Tabriz is almost entirely populated by Alevis. For political reasons, one of which was to create a distinct identity for these communities, they have not been called Alevi since the early 20th century. They are called various names, such as Ali Illahi, Ahl-i Haqq and Goran. Groups with similar beliefs also exist in Iranian Kurdistan. Interestingly both the Dersim (Kirmancki / Zaza) people and the Gorani, who are both considered as belonging to the Hawramani branch of the proto-Kurdish language, adhere to a form of Alevi faith which resembles in many significant respects, such as the perpetuation of a caste system, the religions of the Druze or Yazidi.

Beliefs and Practices

Introduction

The nature of Alevi faith can be hard to define, as they do not have a central authority and are based on an orally transmitted tradition, which has been kept secret from outsiders for centuries. So various descriptions of Alevism can be found by different groups.

Despite disputes regarding the non-Islamic origins of Alevism, most Alevis believe their path is true Islam originated with Mohammad and Ali.

Many Alevis stress the liberal and humanistic values of Alevism as a world-view, while others deny that Alevism is an Islamic sect, and claim that it is an independent religion with origins in the pre-Islamic religions that the Turkic people came into contact with during migration to Anatolia. The predominant religions which are claimed to have shaped Alevism are Yazidism, Yazdânism the Ahl-i Haqq and Yarsanism, still present in the area where Kurds live and its vicinity. All three of these religions do not claim to have Islamic origins, nor do their adherents claim to be Muslims.[1]

Another view sees Alevism as the authentic expression of an Anatolian culture and civilization, and sets up an Anatolian cultural mosaic in contrast to a specific Turkish nationalism. This mosaic includes Greeks and Armenians in addition to Turks, Kurds, and Zaza, as these groups were allied with the Alevis against Ottoman oppression. In this view three factors combined to create the Alevi community: local Anatolian heritage (especially the paulicianism which influenced also the bogomilism and the albigensians); Central Asian Turkic culture and religion, which migrated to Anatolia beginning in the 11th century; and old Anatolian Hellenistic, Roman, and Christian inheritance. These three elements, plus Islam, combined to produce an Anatolian religion suitable for Anatolian populations.[2]

While the Sunnis recognise the four caliphs: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali, the Twelver Shias (incl. the Alevis) recognise Ali as the first of the 12 Imams of the Muslim community.

The fundamental Shia beliefs within Alevism are more similar to Nizari Shia-Imami-Ismailism than with Ithna'ashari Shiism (otherwise known as Twelver Shiism), and the likenesses are striking.

The basis of most Alevi beliefs is found in the Buyruks, written by Hajji Bektash Wali and many other notable Alevi 'holy men.' Some of the more doctrinal beliefs are only considered static by the Bektashi Order of Dervishes, which is like the monastic order within Alevism, and are interpreted freely within mainstream Alevi communities.

Alevis in their contact with Christians note that the difference between them and the Christians is “as thin as the inside lining of an onion."

Ali

The name Alevi can be simply translated into English as “of Ali” or “follower of Ali.” It fits a pattern in Turkish for common names of two other major religious groups: Musevi, (follower of Moses (Musa), or Jewish); and İsevi, (follower of Jesus (İsa), or Christian).

There is much debate as to actually when the broad Anatolian population which today call themselves Alevis actually took on that name. For our purposes here, it is enough to simply know that today they do prefer to call themselves Alevi.

It is visibly obvious that Ali ibn Abi Talib is extremely important to modern Alevis. His picture is prominent in every Alevi worship place and association, and it often appears on the cover of Alevi publications. Many families place pictures of him in their homes. And some, particularly young people, wear small gold replicas of Ali’s sword, Zulfikar, attached to chains around their necks.

Zulfiqar, a stylized representation of the sword of Ali.
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Zulfiqar, a stylized representation of the sword of Ali.
  • Essential Views

While there is a wide variety of opinions among Alevis about exactly who Ali was or is, almost all Alevis agree on the following:

1. Ali was Muhammad’s cousin (amca oğlu) and son-in-law (damat), marrying the latter's daughter, Fatima.

2. Ali was the first to believe in Muhammed's prophethood; therefore he became the first Muslim.

3. Ali was the closest human being to Muhammad.

4. Ali was Muhammed's intended successor, and therefore the first caliph, but competitors stole this right from him. Muhammad intended for leadership of Muslims to perpetually stem from his family line Ahl ul-Bayt beginning with Ali, Fatima, and their two sons, Hasan and Hussain. Ali, Hasan, and Hussain are considered the first three imams, and the other nine of the Twelve Imams come from Hussain's blood line.

Most Alevis believe that the 12th imam, Muhammad ibn Hasan ibn Ali, grew up in secret to be saved from those who wanted to wipe out the family of Ali. Many Alevis believe that he is in occultation and will return as the Mahdi.

  • Debated Views

Apart from these basic ideas, there is a wide spectrum of opinion even among Alevis as to the true nature of Ali. The following ideas are all based on a combination of Qur'anic verses, hadith, and folklore. Here are some of the most common concepts of Ali circulating among today's Alevis.

1. Ali is the ultimate example of the perfect human, apart from the prophets. Ali is attributed with nearly supernatural strength and spiritual wisdom, giving him a place almost as high as a prophet. An example of this thought is the saying (sometimes attributed to Muhammed):

“Muhammed is the city of spiritual knowledge, Ali is the door.”

Muhammed ilim şehridir, Ali kapısıdır.

2. Ali is equal to Muhammed in enlightenment and authority. Ali and Muhammed are likened to the two sides of a coin, or two halves of one whole apple, as in the following poem:

“Ali is Muhammed, Muhammed is Ali;

I saw one apple, praise Allah”

Ali Muhammed'dir, Muhammed Ali

Gördüm bir elmadır, elhamdü-lillâh

Again, from a saying attributed to Muhammed:

“Before the creation of Adam, we were one glorious light; the light of glory on Adam's forehead was divided into two; one half appeared on my forehead, the other on Ali's.”

Hz. Âdem yaratılmadan önce tek nur idik; Hz. Âdem'in alnındaki nur ikiye bölünmüş ve birisi benim, birisi de Ali'nin alnında doğmuştur.

3. Ali is deity in a trinity with Allah and Muhammed.

Most Alevis recite this phrase in their prayers: “For the love of God, Muhammed, Ali” (Hak-Muhammed-Ali aşkına). When many say this and the phrase, “Allah-Muhammed-Ali” they are intentionally equating the authority of the three.

4. Ali is deity by himself.

In a poem written by a Bektashi lodge leader named Hilmi Dede Baba and commonly quoted by Alevis, the poet says that wherever he looked - at Adam and Eve, at Noah, at Abraham, or even in the mirror - “Ali appeared before my eyes” (Ali göründü gözüme). I understand the poet to mean that Ali is timeless and present everywhere. The poem also declares:

“He is Jesus, the spirit of God,

He is king of this world and the next,

He is the protector of the believers,

Ali appeared before my eyes”

İsa-yı ruhullah O'dur

İki alemde Şah Odur

Müminlere penah O'dur

Ali göründü gözüme

The poem’s final stanza says,

“Ali is first, Ali is last,

Ali is inner knowledge,

Ali is external knowledge,

Ali is pure, Ali is glorious”

Ali evvel Ali ahir

Ali batın Ali zâhir

Ali tayyib Ali fâhir

One more poem cited by Alevis is attributed to Jalaladdin Rumi (Mevlana), who was among the greatest of Turkish mystics, but himself not considered an Alevi.

“At the coming into existence of the world,

Ali was present.

While the world was forming,

Ali was there.

Until the world took its basic form,

The one present was Ali.”

Cihan var oldukça Ali var idi.

Cihan var olurken de Ali vardı.

Cihan'ın temeli suret buluncaya kadar

Var olan Ali idi.

VI. Alevis, Haji

12 Imams Representation
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12 Imams Representation

Twelve Imams

All of the Twelve Imams share the same 'light' or Noor as Ali, therefore Ali ibn Abi Talib was the 'First Ali' (birinci ali), Hussayn ibn 'Alī was the 'Second Ali' (ikinci ali), Hassan ibn 'Alī was the 'Third Ali' (Ūçüncü Ali) etc.. up to Muhammad al-Mahdi the 'Twelfth Ali' (Onikinci Ali).

Esotericism (Batinism)

Like other heterodox Islamic beliefs, Alevism also belongs to the Batini (Esoteric) interpretation of Islam. The Batini groups are almost exclusively Shiitic, which Batini groups claim, is an indication that the True Path of Imam Ali was a Batini one.

The contrast to Batin (Esotericism) is Zahir (Exotericism). Alevis belief that the Quran possesses both a Zahiri and Batini meaning, but the Batini meaning is held as a Holy Secret (Sır) and teaching the Secret to strangers has been strictly forbidden. But these rules are not being followed in modern days. Most Alevis believe the Quran is missing hundreds of verses about Ali.

The Zahiri part of Islam is believed to be the 1st (Sharia) of the total 4 Doors, in Alevi theology. Alevis believing to have passed the Sharia Door, therefore do not adhere to the normal Sharia, the Islamic legal code, including;

  • Not performing the Salah (namaz) ritual.
  • Not performing Wudu, the ritual ablutions of Muslims.
  • Absence of mosques in Alevi communities, they have their own ceremonial halls called Cemevi.
  • Men and women pray together in all religious services and they are not segregated in secular life.

but instead follow the demands and rules of the 2nd Door, Tariqa.

God

Alevism has a concept of God at different levels, all being emanations of Haqq the Ultimate Reality. The underlying concept within Alevism is that there only exists one and the same religion and that each religion usually degenerates into establishing a priesthood and a hierarchy, uses as time passes, invariably degraded knowledge to control fellow men and societies in order to obtain privileges. Consequently new prophets emerge to preach the original message, which briefly can be summarized as 'love thy neighbor.' But underneath any exoteric concept of God, there is a chain of emanation from God to spiritual man, man on earth, animals, plants and minerals. This concept is called Wahdat-ul-Wujood.

'Trinity'

Haqq-Muhammad-Ali. In the Shia Islamic context Ali is given the dominating role - like Christ for many Christians. In the Alevi context God seems to be beyond reach and Muhammad is clearly eclipsed by Ali. These aspects of the instruction were scanty and unclear and it shall not be excluded that I have over-interpreted them in order to arrive at a comprehensible picture. Drawing comparisons of the Alevi concept of 'trinity' to the Christian concept it can be explained thus: God the Father seems to be pure spirit or pure truth, and accordingly taking no interest in the lives of individual human beings. God the Son seems to correspond to Perfect man 'Insan-i Kamil who has achieved union with God, represented by i.e. Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Buddha, Muhammad and Ali according to denomination. God the Holy Spirit seems then to correspond to the Spiritual Self, the Voice of Conscience, guiding man on his way to perfection and union with God.

Muhammad-Ali

Muhammad and Ali ibn Abi Talib are identified as one being in such a way that the two are like two sides of a coin. [citation needed]

Spiritual Brother/Sisterhood

Müsahiplik; a covenant relationship between members of the community. In a ceremony in the presence of a dede, the members make a life-long commitment to care for the spiritual, emotional, and physical needs of each other and their children. The ties between couples who have made this commitment is at least as strong as it is for blood relatives. So much so, that müsahiplik is often called spiritual brotherhood (manevi kardeşlik), the children of covenanted couples may not marry.[3]

The Jem

The central Alevi corporate worship service is called a Jem (Turkish: Cem or ayini Jem, meaning congregational or assembly meeting). Alevis prefer to believe that the Jem has its roots in an original worship and teaching meeting of forty spiritual individuals Kirklar Majlisi (Turkish: Kırklar Meclisi) led by Ali.

Leadership

Alevi leadership does not follow the same model of Muslims, instead they have Dedes and Babas.

Taqiya

Alevis practice Taqiya, the dissimulation of one's Alevi identity or beliefs to outsiders. This is less true since the last quarter of the 20th century due to urbanisation and emigration.

Headscarf

According to Australian anthropologist, Dr Sevgi Kilic, while Alevi women do not experience gender segregation in the private and public domain they are however subject to traditional male values about women's sexuality and constructed within the honour/shame paradigm. Dr Sevgi Kilic, is of Alevi heritage and her family migrated to Australia some 40 years ago. Growing up in a western society she was unaware of the rich culture and traditions and the unique identity of the Alevi and she poignantly reveals how she 'learnt to be an Alevi' through the narratives of the women in her study. This ethnography is the first on Alevi women in Turkey and argues that Alevi identity is complex, diverse and rich in its theory and practice. Hence, while rural Alevi women ascribe to traditional conservative views about women's status in the family these ideas rapidly change within an urban environment where many are compelled to work as domestic servants, and in other low paid jobs. Unlike Sunni women in Turkey, Alevi women are not required to wear a headscarf or other bodily coverings. According to Kilic this is because Alevi identity is very much focused on the internal rather than the external representation and covering women's hair or concealing the female body in and of itself cannot legitimize women's moral, social, political and economic worth. Thus an unveiled Alevi women cannot impugn her honour or her communities. Thus Alevi women's bodies are what Kilic calls paradoxically 'neutral'and acts as an 'ideology of difference.'

Alevis are not the only Islamic sect in which women do not wear the headscarf. Ismailis do not only not wear it, but are forbidden from doing so by the Aga Khan.

Fasting

Alevism has three fasts, different from the Islamic Saum. These are:

  • The fast during the first 12 days of the Muslim month of Muharram (or Mâtem Orucu), which comes 20 days after Eid ul-Adha (Kurban Bayramı). Another Alevi fast is the three-day Hizir fast (Hızır Orucu), generally observed on the 13-14-15 February.
  • In addition to abstaining from food, the Alevi fast includes abstaining from drinking water both day and night. They will intake liquids other than water during the evening. During the fast, Alevis will also avoid any sort of comfort or enjoyment. The main exoteric purpose of this fast is to mourn the murder of Ali's son, Hussain, during the battle of Karbala. The main esoteric purpose is self-sacrifice for character building. At the conclusion of the fast of Muharram, a special food dish called ashure (aşure) is prepared from a variety (often 12 in number) of grains, fruits and nuts. Many events are associated with this celebration, including the salvation of Hussain’s son, Zaynul Abideen, from the massacre at Karbala, thus allowing the bloodline of the family of the prophet to continue.
  • Many Alevis fast for three days in mid-February to honor Khidr (in Turkish: Hizir), a supernatural being akinned to the Green Man who they believe has been sent by God throughout history to save those who are in distress.

Also the dates can be different: Most use the mooncalender but some use the suncalender

Almsgiving

Alevis are not expected to give Zakat in the Islamic mode and there is no set formula or amount. A common method of Alevi almsgiving is through donating food, especially sacrificial animals, to be shared with worshippers and guests. Alevis also donate money to be used to help the poor, to support the religious, educational and cultural activities of Alevi centers and organizations (dergâh, vakıf, dernek), and to provide scholarships for students.

Pilgrimage

Ritually visiting Mecca is not an Alevi practice. However, visiting ziyarat and performing dua at the tombs of Alevi-Bektashi saints or Pirs is quite common. Alevis are not commanded or required to make these visits. They do not go to gain credit in heaven. Their purpose is to ask for spiritual cleansing and blessing for themselves or others. Some of the most frequently visited sites are:

1. Hacibektas, Kirshehir Hundreds of thousands of Alevis gather in the memory of Haji Bektash at his lodge (tekke) and tomb every 16 August.

2. Abdal Musa, Tekke Koyu, Elmalı, Antalya

Its special celebrations are held in June.

3. Shahkulu Sultan, Merdivenköy, Istanbul

Jem services are held here every Thursday and on Alevi holidays.

4. Karacaahmet Sultan, Üsküdar, İstanbul

Jem services are also held here every Thursday and on Alevi holidays.

5. Seyit Gazi, Eskishehir

6. Pir Sultan Abdal Kültür Etkinlikleri, Banaz Koyu, Yildizeli, Sivas

Celebration held every year (23-24 june) in honur of Pir Sultan Abdal

Ritual Dance

'Semah' is the Alevi ritual dance characterized by turning and swirling, this dance of worship has many varieties. 'Semah' is quite similar to pre-islamic Turkish religous worship dances made by shamans. Performed by men and women to the accompaniment of the Bağlama, the semah is an inseparable part of any ceremony. It symbolizes the putting off of one’s self and union with God.

Four Doors

'Four Doors, Forty Levels (Dört kapı kırk makam)'

One key way Alevis describe how they are different than those who follow Islamic law Shari'a, but also love the family of the prophet, is with the concept of Four Doors, Forty Levels (dört kapı kırk makam). This is the process by which an individual commits him or herself to a living spiritual guide (dede, pir, mürşit) and that spiritual leader guides the person through a series of four “doors” (kapı), each of which has ten “levels” (makam). The individual enters the first door as a novice. The person who makes it through to the fourth door achieves oneness with ultimate truth (hakikat). The doors' names are religious law, spiritual path, spiritual knowledge/skill, and spiritual truth (şeriat, tarikat, marifet, hakikat).

To Alevis, anyone who only believes in the rule of religious law has not advanced beyond the most basic level of spiritual knowledge. Whoever has entered the next level through a relationship with a spiritual guide has left religious legalism behind and started on the path of inner, deeper spiritual insight.

This belief is shared with Ismailis.

The Human Prototype

The "Perfect Human Being" or "Insan-i Kamil" is an important Alevi concept, it is the prototype human being, pure consciousness, our true identity, to be contrasted with the material human who is bound by its senses and materialism. A human task is to fully realise this state whilst still in material human form and thus become liberated from sin.

Somewhat comparable to the Purusha of Samkhya Hinduism and the Adam Kadmon of Lurianic Kabbalah, it also has similarities with the Anthropos of Gnosticism and Manichaeism.

Today's Alevis would define the perfect human in practical terms as one who is in full moral control of his or her hands, tongue and loins (eline diline beline sahip), treats all kinds of people equally (yetmiş iki millete aynı gözle bakar), and serves the interests of others. It is the goal of all Alevis to achieve the moral standards of the perfect human being. One who has achieved this kind of enlightenment is also named "Eren" or "Munavver."

This concept is oftentimes explained as the esoteric meaning behind practicing the Sharia, as well as explaining the Qur'anic concept of human beings not having original sin, because the centre of consciousness is pure and perfect. However, esoteric explanations (known as Batini Ta'wil) are commonplace and varied amongst Alevis due to the plurality of meanings.

Union with God

Alevi mysticism is essentially monistic, therefore Alevism has the concept of the worshipper becoming one with Haqq, that is, Reality, the "Ultimate Truth." Mansur Al-Hallaj, a 10th century Sufi uttered the phrase, “I am Truth” (Ana al-Haqq). Religious authorities interpreted this statement as Mansur’s literally equating himself with Allah. He was assassinated in Baghdad for his so-called blasphemous mystic beliefs. This is often narrated by Alevis.

Folk Beliefs

  • lighting candles at the tombs of saints;
  • kissing door frames of holy rooms;
  • not stepping on the threshold of holy buildings;
  • seeking prayers from reputed healers;
  • writing wishes on strips of cloth and tying them to trees that are considered to be spiritually powerful;
  • making 'Lokma' and sharing it with the people which is believed to give prosperity and luck

Internal Groups

A Turkish scholar working in France has distinguished four main groups among contemporary Alevis, which cautiously show their distinctive features in modern Turkey[4]}.

The first is mainly represented by the urban population and emerged during the Republic. It has for decades belonged to the political left and regards Alevism as an outlook on life more than a religion. The followers hold ritual unions of a religious character and have also established cultural associations named after Pir Sultan Abdal. Man enjoys a central role as illustrated by the phrase 'God is Man' quoted above in the context of the Trinity.

The second group is more directed towards heterodox mysticism and stands closer to the Haci Bektashi Brotherhood. St Francis of Assisi and Mahatma Gandhi are considered better believers than many a Muslim.

The third group regards themselves as true Muslims and are prepared to cooperate with the state. It adheres to the way of Jafar as-Sadiq, the sixth Imam. Its concept of God is closer to orthodox Islam but as the two groups already mentioned it considers the Qur'an to have been manipulated by the early Sunni Caliphs in order to eliminate Ali.

The fourth is said to be under active influence from official Iranian Shia, to be confirmed adherents to Twelver Shia and to reject Bektashism. It follows Sharia and opposes secular state power. Information on strength and location is not available.

Alevi dede

An Alevi dede is the equivalent to a socio-religious leader in the Alevi community.

The institution of dede is the most important of all the institutions integral to the social and religious organization of the Anatolian Alevis. Although much weakened as a result of the socio-economic transformation experienced in Anatolia towards the end of the nineteenth century, and particularly due to accelerated migration from the rural to the urban areas after the foundation of the Turkish Republic, it played a primary role in the survival of Alevism until today.

The institution of dedes is based on a three tiered hierarchy:

1-Murshid 2-Pir 3-Rehber

In some regions this hierarchy is modified in such a way that the Pir and Murshid change places. This is exclusively a functional hierarchy, as all involved come from a dede family. They fulfill functions that are complementary in nature, and would be meaningless in isolation from each other. The dede families, all of them called 'ocakzades', had distributed these duties among themselves.

Qualifications of a Dede

According to the books of the Buyruk which include the basic principles of the Alevi faith, and the traditions that survive among the Alevis, a dede must have the following qualifications:[5]

  • To be a descendant of the Prophet (ocakzade)
  • To operate as an educator and a moral guide (mürebbi) for the community
  • To be knowledgeable and exemplary in his character and manners (insan-i kamil)
  • To follow the principles written in the Buyruks, as well as the established traditions of Alevism.

Functions

The main functions of the dedes can be summarized as follows:

  • To guide and enlighten (irşad) the community in social and religious matters.
  • To lead the religious rituals
  • To punish the criminals, and to serve as an arbiter between conflicting sides.
  • To lead ceremonies during occasions such as a wedding or a funeral.
  • To fulfil certain legal and educational functions
  • Provide health provisions.
  • Provide socio-political leadership.
  • In some exceptional cases, such as in the Dersim province,[6] dedes share the leadership position with the large landowners, the Agas.

Legal Functions

For Alevis, “YOL” [path] is a very important concept. The pedigrees of the dedes consistently emphasize this by saying “Yol cümleden uludur” [the Path is the most exalted of all].[7] What is important is the “Yol” and not the personal desires and needs of an individual Alevi. All the latter are possible only in conformity with the former. Otherwise, the institution of düşkün would be activated. In other words, an Alevi would become a düşkün if he tries to satisfy his desires and needs without regard for the “Yol’. As Prof. Yusuf Ziya Yörükan noted “…Dede declares one a düşkün by saying to him ‘may your face be darkened’. Any more that person is deprived of the law of men….”[8]

The following are major crimes that lead one to the state of düşkün:[9]

  • killing a person
  • committing adultery
  • divorcing one’s wife
  • marrying a divorced woman
  • to steal

Dushkunluk Meydani

The resolution of Alevi community disputes or problems in a Dushkunluk Meydani (Turkish: Düşkünlük Meydanı) or 'People's Court' presided over by the Alevi dede.

Today

The institution of Dedes have played an important role and fulfilled important function among the Alevis. While today it seems the Dede function is being revived in a different shape and with different functions that correspond with the needs of the contemporary Alevi community.

Ojaks

An Ojak (Turkish: Ocak) is a form of Alevi hearth linked to the Alevi dedes.

In terms of their internal organization, every Alevi-Bektashi community follows a particular dargah [convent] or ocak [hearth]. Socially, the discipline connected to one’s affiliation with a dargah or ojak is of primary importance.

Relations with other Muslim groups

The relationship between Alevis and Sunnis is one of mutual suspicion and prejudice, dating back to the Ottoman period. Sunnis have accused Alevis of heresy, heterodoxy, rebellion, betrayal and immorality. Alevis, on the other hand, have argued that the original Quran does not demand five prayers, nor mosque attendance, nor pilgrimage and that the Sunnis distorted early Islam by omitting, misinterpreting, or changing important passages of the original Quran, especially those dealing with Ali and ritual practice.[10]

Alevis see Sunni narrowmindedness as originating in Arabia and as contrary to the Turkish national character. Sunna and Hadith were Arab elite innovations, created to ensure Arab dominance of Islam and to enslave the masses through manipulation. All evil developments in Islam are seen as the fault of Arab society and character. Sunnism, according to the Alevis, is not true Islam but an aberration that by its strict legalism opposes free and independent thought and is seen as reactionary, bigoted, fanatic, and antidemocratic. Alevis believe Sunni nationalism is intolerant, domineering, and unwilling to recognize Alevi uniqueness.[11]

The ideals of equality, justice, and respect for all are prominent in Alevi society and give Alevi women a more respected status than that of Sunni women. Alevi women do not need to be veiled and are not as segregated, nor must they fear polygamy or one-sided divorce as Alevis practice monogamy and divorce is forbidden. Women also partake equally in the religious life of the community.[12]

In today's political arena Alevis see themselves as a counterforce to Sunni fundamentalism, ensuring the continued secularism of Turkey. Alevis, who have a great interest in blocking the rising fundamentalist influence, are the main allies of the secularist forces, and are also searching for alliances with moderate Sunnis against the extremists. They are demanding that the state recognize Alevism as an official Islamic community equal to, but different from, Sunnism.

There is some tension between folk tradition Alevism and the Bektashi Order, which is a Sufi order founded on Alevi beliefs[13]}. In certain Turkish communities, other Sufi orders, namely the Halveti-Jerrahi and some of the Rifa'i, have incorporated significant Alevi influence. Though generally regarded as a Sunni group historically, some Rifa'is accept the Alevi identity. This is particularly common among Turkish teacher Sherif Baba's Rifa'i Marufi Order, whose worship combines elements of typical Alevi traditions with Sunni practices. They have sometimes identified with the Alevi, with whom they share secularist principles, a general scepticism of extreme orthodoxy, an emphasis on men and women worshipping together, a common group of revered saints such as Hajji Bektash Veli and Pir Sultan Abdal, and a deep devotion to the family of the Prophet Muhammad.

According to Shia belief, whoever says the Shahadah is considered a Muslim. Accordingly, Ayatollah Khomeini put an end to excluding Alevis from the ranks of muslims. He pronounced that they are technically considered Muslims even if they have differing beliefs to the Usoolis.[14]

Festivals

  • Nowruz

Nowruz (Turkish: Nevruz) literary means the new day is the day of 21 March is known by most Turkic people and Alevis as a day of newness, reconciliation, and the start of spring. Many Alevis also believe that 21 March is the birthday of Ali. Some also believe that it is the wedding anniversary of Ali and Fatima, the day Joseph was pulled out of the well, and the day God created the earth. Noruz is celebrated with jems and special programs. Nowruz is the Alevi New Year. The same day has been celebrated by Iranians as the New Year for thousands of years. Originally, Nowruz was a secular festival. March 21 is the first day of the spring equinox.

  • Hidrellez

According to legend, Khidr (known in Turkish as Hizir) and the prophet Elijah or Ilyas drank of the water of life. Khidr comes to the rescue of those in distress on land, and Elijah helps those at sea. It is believed by many that they meet at a rose tree in the evening of every 6th of May. The festival is also celebrated in parts of the Balkans by the name of "Erdelez" and always falls on the same day as Djurdjevdan or St. George's Day.

Ashura is marked as the conclusion of the Muharram fast and as a commemoration of the martyrdom of Hussain.

Alevi Music

Alevi religious musical services are referred to collectively as cem or âyîn. Their purpose is not only to focus on spiritual exercises that include elements of zikr (without controlled breathing but with some elements of body posturing) and ritual dance (sema) accompanied by sung mystical poetry in the vernacular and the sacred ritual instrument known as balama or saz (plucked folk lute with frets). They also serve to reinforce social solidarity and correctness of behaviour through inculcating the beliefs and doctrines of the sect and saintly figures as well.

Music is performed by individuals recruited from Alevi communities and descended from holy lineages of religious leaders known as dede. These specialists are viewed with respect and known as zâkir, aik, sazende or güvende, depending on regional usage. Many are also known to be poet/minstrels (aik, ozan) who perpetuate the tradition of dervish-lodge (tekke) poets such as the much loved and admired Yunus Emre (13th century), Nesîmî (14th century), Pir Sultan Abdal, Hata'î and Genç Abdal (16th century) and Kul Himmet and Kul Hüseyn (17th century). The poetry was composed in the Turkish vernacular and follows the principles of folk prosody known as hece vezne in which the focus is the number of syllables.

The specialized sacred musical repertoire of Alevi musicians includes deyi (songs of mystical love), nefes (hymns concerning the mystical experience), düvaz or düvâzdeh imâm (hymns in honor of the 12 Alid imams), mersiye (laments concerning the martyrdom of the imam Huseyn at Kerbela), miraclama (songs about the ascent of the prophet Muhamad to heaven) and sema (ritual dance that is accompanied by folk lutes and sung poetry). The dances are performed with dignity by couples, and choreographies employ circle and line formations as well as arrangements where couples face one another, thus synchronizing their movements more closely. As the tempo of the music increases, the figures become more complex and intense. There are many regional variants of sema, but the most widespread and important are the Dance of the Forty (Krklar Semah) and the Dance of the Cranes (Turnalar Semah) where the movements of the dance illustrate links to a shamanistic legacy and the transformation of shamans into birds who take flight.

The gathering of the forty saints refers to the moment, after the Prophet's ascension to heaven, when he beheld the manifestation of Divine Reality in Ali. The Alevis believe that this gathering can be viewed as the prototype for their central rite (âyîn-i-cem, görgü cemi), the Rite of Integration. This is a complex ritual occasion in which a variety of tasks are allotted to incumbents bound together by extrafamilial brotherhood (musahiplik) who undertake a dramatization of unity and integration under the direction of the spiritual leader (dede). The dede interacts formally with his 12 assistants and the body of worshippers as he applies Alevi religious idioms that reinforce links to Sunni Islam, the Bektai order of Dervishes and Shii Islam as well. The âyîn-i-cem can be heard on the JVC CD Turkey. An Esoteric Sufi Ceremony. Unfortunately for non-specialists, the notes are very vague and give no indication of location, performers, musical genres or poetic forms. The recording was made in Istanbul in 1993, and the ceremony includes in an order typical of a cem: a deyi that reiterates the line of descent of the sect in a historical framework, two düvaz (one based on the poetry of Hatayi, and the other on the poetry of Kul Himmet), prayer formulas, the illâllâh genre that incorporates the tahlîl formula into the poem to create an atmosphere of zikr while sect members create rhythmic intensity by hitting their knees in time to the music and sway their bodies slightly, the Dance of the Forty (Krklar Semah), the Dance of the Cranes (Turnalar Semah) and prayer formulas.

Music and poetry

Alevis have a significant role in Turkish music and poetry. Pir Sultan Abdal, a 16th century Alevi poet whose poems and songs often contain spiritual themes, is revered as a saint and hero. Important figures are the Sufi poet Yunus Emre, widely regarded as having been Alevi, and Kaygusuz Abdal. Their poems shape Turkish culture up to now, and are also performed by modern artists. Songs attributed to these poets have been embraced by left-wingers in the 20th century. The aşık bards are also influenced by Alevi tradition.

Many of the major traditional musicians in Turkey are Alevi, including Arif Sağ, Musa Eroğlu, Erdal Erzincan, Neşet Ertaş, Muharrem Ertaş, Aşık Mahzuni Şerif, Aşık Feyzullah Çınar, Aşık Veysel Şatıroğlu, Ali Ekber Çiçek, Sabahat Akkiraz, Belkıs Akkale. Other non-Alevis, such as Ruhi Su and Zülfü Livaneli, have recorded many Alevi songs. Mercan Dede, an artist whose music combines electronic and traditional sufi elements, has made some songs involving Alevi themes in cooperation with singer Sabahat Akkiraz. [2]

Video Clips

Video Series

Below are a series of videos from Turkish television showing a Jem services, otherwise known as "Aynul Jem." See above section on the Jem for a description.

Part One http://www.youtube.com/v/a_Ehvodq4t0

Part Two http://www.youtube.com/v/QU8ErPl0Ilc

Part Three http://www.youtube.com/v/E9hUUnBnGcc

Part Four http://www.youtube.com/v/JaUwwDlWXY8

Part Five http://www.youtube.com/v/eoiCknfmExM

Part Six http://www.youtube.com/v/xPd9U0A94gM

Part Seven http://www.youtube.com/v/EYSNELigIGs

Other Videos

A Semah during a Cem:

http://www.youtube.com/v/X7rtPiXybKQ

Amateur Videos of parts of a Cem:

1) http://www.youtube.com/v/BZEswNbVmFs

2) http://www.youtube.com/v/ju0QHcFYa7g

3) http://www.youtube.com/v/GBAxnz4_CPU

A Cem in the Zaza tradition:

http://www.youtube.com/v/5PjWf6Z0gR4

References

  1. ^ Mehrdad R. Izady. 1992. The Kurds: A Concise Handbook. Excerpts published on the Internet at: <http://kurdish.com/kurdistan/religion/alevism.htm>
  2. ^ Karin Vorhoff. 1995. Zwischen Glaube, Nation und neuer Gemeinschaft: Alevitische Identitat in der Turkei der Gegenwart, pp. 100-101.
  3. ^ Krisztina Kehl-Bodrogi. 1988. Die Kizilbash/Aleviten, pp. 182-204.
  4. ^ Bilici, F: "The Function of Alevi-Bektashi Theology in Modern Turkey", seminar. Swedish Research Institute, 1996
  5. ^ On the issue of the qualifications and functions of dedes, Peter J. Bumke gives valuable information. Bumke, ibid, pp. 18-21
  6. ^ Officially today there is no province called Dersim. For centuries, Dersim maintained a kind of autonomy under the leadership of the tribal chiefs, and covers a region that includes the provinces of Erzincan, Tunceli and parts of Sivas. In 1937, the name of Dersim was changed to Tunceli.
  7. ^ This and similar expressions are frequently encountered in the secere of the Ocak of Ali Abbas.
  8. ^ Yusuf Ziya, “Tahtacılar, Tahtacılarda Dini ve Sırri hayat’, DARÜLFÜNUN İLAHİYAT FAKÜLTESİ MECMUASI, year: 4, no: 15, May 1930, p. 75
  9. ^ Also see, Öztürk, ibid, pp. 78-81. In the old days, marrying a Sünni [Yezide kuşak çözmek] was also accepted as an offense that led to the state of düşkün. See Alevi Buyruks
  10. ^ Karin Vorhoff. 1995. Zwischen Glaube, Nation und neuer Gemeinschaft: Alevitische Identitat in der Turkei der Gegenwart, pp. 107-108.
  11. ^ Karin Vorhoff. 1995. Zwischen Glaube, Nation und neuer Gemeinschaft: Alevitische Identitat in der Turkei der Gegenwart, pp. 95-96.
  12. ^ Krisztina Kehl-Bodrogi. 1988. Die Kizilbash/Aleviten, pp. 225-228.
  13. ^ Ataseven, I: "The Alevi-Bektasi Legacy: Problems of Acquisition and Explanation", page 1. Coronet Books Inc, 1997
  14. ^ Nasr, V: "The Shia Revival," page 1. Norton, W. W. & Company, Inc, 2006

See also

External links

Literature

  • John Kingsley Birge, The Bektashi order of dervishes