Alfred Adler (February 7 1870 – May 28 1937) was an Austrian medical
doctor and psychologist, founder of the school of
individual psychology. Adler co-founded psychoanalysis with Sigmund Freud and a small group of Freud's colleagues. He was the first major figure
to break away from psychoanalysis to form an independent school of psychotherapy and
personality theory. Adler had an enormous impact on the disciplines of counseling
and psychotherapy as they would develop over the course of the 20th century (Ellenberger, 1970). He influenced notable figures in
other schools of psychotherapy such as Rollo May, Viktor
Frankl, Abraham Maslow and Albert Ellis. His
writings preceded and at times were surprisingly consistent with later neo-Freudian insights such as evidenced in the works of
Karen Horney, Harry Stack Sullivan and
Erich Fromm.
Adler emphasized the importance of social equality in order to prevent various forms of psychopathology and espoused the
development of social interest and democratic family structures as the ideal ethos for raising children. His most famous concept
is the inferiority complex which speaks to the problem of self-esteem and its
negative compensations (e.g. sometimes producing a paradoxical superiority striving). His emphasis on power dynamics is rooted in
the philosophy of Nietzsche. Adler argued for holism, viewing the individual
holistically rather than reductively, the latter being the dominant lens for viewing human psychology. Adler was also among the
first in psychology to argue in favor of feminism making the case that power dynamics between
men and women (and associations with masculinity and femininity) are crucial to understanding human psychology (Connell, 1995).
Adler is considered, along with Freud and Jung, to
be one of the three founding figures of depth psychology, which emphasizes the
unconscious and psychodynamics (Ellenberger, 1970; Ehrenwald, 1991).
Early career: Adler and Freud
In 1901 Adler received a letter from Sigmund Freud inviting him to join an informal
discussion group that included Max Kahane, Rudolf Reitler, and Wilhelm Stekel. They met
regularly on Wednesday evenings at Freud's home with membership expanding over time. This group was the beginning of the
psychoanalytic movement (Mittwochsgesellschaft or the "Wednesday Society"). A long serving member of the group, Adler
became President of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society eight years later (1910). He remained a member of the Society until 1911
when he and a group of supporters formally disengaged, the first of the great dissenters from Freudian psychoanalysis (preceding
Carl Jung's notorious split in 1914). This departure suited both Freud and Adler since they
had grown to dislike each other. During his association with Freud, Adler frequently maintained his own ideas which often
diverged from Freud's. It is commonly suggested that Adler was once "a pupil of Freud's", however this suggestion is a myth; they
were colleagues. In 1929 Adler showed a reporter with the New York Herald a copy of the faded postcard that Freud had sent him in
1902. He wanted to prove that he had never been a disciple of Freud's but rather that Freud had sought him out to share his
ideas.
Adler founded the Society of Individual Psychology in 1912 after his break from the psychoanalytic movement. Adler's group
initially included some orthodox Nietzschean adherents (who believed that Adler's ideas on power and inferiority were closer to
Nietzsche than were Freud's). Their enmity aside, Adler retained a lifelong admiration of Freud's ideas on dreams and credited
him for creating a scientific approach to their clinical utilization (Fiebert, 1997). Nevertheless, even with dream
interpretation, Adler had his own theoretical and clinical approach. The primary differences between Adler and Freud centered on
Adler's contention that the social realm (exteriority) is as important to psychology as is the internal realm (interiority). The
dynamics of power and compensation extend beyond sexuality and the arena of gender and politics are important considerations that
go beyond libido. Moreover, Freud did not share Adler's socialist beliefs. Trotsky's biography mentions his having discussions
with Alfred Adler in Vienna.
The Adlerian School
Following Adler's break from Freud, he enjoyed considerable success and celebrity in building an independent school of psychotherapy and a unique personality theory. He traveled and lectured for a period of 25 years
promoting his socially oriented approach. His intent was to build a movement that would rival, even supplant, others in
psychology by arguing for the holistic integrity of psychological well-being with that of social equality. Adler's efforts were
halted by World War I, during which he served as a doctor with the Austrian Army. Post-war
his influence increased greatly into the 1930s, he established a number of child guidance clinics from 1921 and was a frequent
lecturer in Europe and the United States, becoming a visiting professor at Columbia University in 1927. His clinical treatment
methods for adults were aimed at uncovering the hidden purpose of symptoms using the therapeutic functions of insight and
meaning.
Adler was concerned with the overcoming of the superiority/inferiority dynamic and was one of the first psychotherapists to
discard the analytic couch in favor of two chairs. This allows the clinician and patient to sit together more or less as equals.
Clinically, Adler's methods were not limited to treatment after-the-fact but extend to the realm of prevention by preempting
future problems in the child. Prevention strategies include encouraging and promoting social interest, belonging, and a cultural
shift within families and communities that leads to the eradication of pampering and neglect (especially corporal punishment).
Adler's popularity was related to the comparative optimism and comprehensibility of his ideas. He often wrote for the lay public
compared to Freud or Jung, whose writings tended to be
exclusively academic. Adler always retained a pragmatic approach that was task oriented. These "Life tasks" are comprised of
occupation/work, society/friendship, and love/sexuality. Their success depends on co-operation. The tasks of life are not to be
considered in isolation since, as Adler (1956) famously commented, "they all throw cross-lights on one another" (pp.
132-133).
Emigration and death
In 1932, after most of Adler's Austrian clinics were closed due to his Jewish heritage (regardless of the fact that he had
already converted to Christianity), Adler left Austria for a professorship at the Long Island College of Medicine in the USA.
Adler died from a heart attack in Aberdeen, Scotland during a lecture tour in
1937. At the time it was a blow to the influence of his ideas although a number of them were taken up by neo-Freudians. Through the work of Dreikurs in the United States and many other adherents worldwide,
Adlerian ideas and approaches remain strong and viable more than 70 years after Adler's death.
Around the world there are various organizations promoting Adler's orientation towards mental and social well-being. These
include the International Committee of Adlerian Summer Schools and Institutes (ICASSI), the North American Society for Adlerian
Psychology (NASAP) and the International Association for Individual Psychology. Teaching
institutes and programs exist in Austria, Canada, England, Germany, Greece, Israel, Italy, Latvia, Switzerland, the United States
and Wales.
Basic principles
Adler was influenced by the mental construct ideas of the philosopher Hans Vaihinger
("The Philosophy of As If") and the literature of Dostoyevsky. While still a member of
the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society he developed a theory of organic inferiority and compensation that was the prototype for his
later turn to phenomenology and the development of his famous concept, the inferiority
complex.
Adler was also influenced by the philosophies of Immanuel Kant, Friedrich Nietzsche, Rudolf Virchow and the statesman
Jan Smuts (who coined the term "holism"). Adler's School, known as "Individual Psychology"—an
arcane reference to the Latin individuus meaning indivisibility, a term intended to emphasize holism—is both a social and
community psychology as well as a depth psychology. Adler was an early advocate in
psychology for prevention and emphasized the training of parents, teachers, social workers and so on in democratic approaches
that allow a child to exercise their power through reasoned decision making whilst co-operating with others. He was a social
idealist, and was known as a socialist in his early years of association with psychoanalysis (1902–1911). His allegiance to
Marxism dissipated over time (he retained Marx's social idealism yet distanced himself from
Marx's economic theories).
Adler (1938) was a very pragmatic man and believed that lay people could make practical use of the insights of psychology. He
sought to construct a social movement united under the principles of "Gemeinschaftsgefuehl" (community feeling) and social
interest (the practical actions that are exercised for the social good). Adler was also an early supporter of feminism in
psychology and the social world believing that feelings of superiority and inferiority were often gendered and expressed
symptomatically in characteristic masculine and feminine styles. These styles could form the basis of psychic compensation and
lead to mental health difficulties. Adler also spoke of "safeguarding tendencies" and neurotic behavior long before Anna Freud
wrote about the same phenomena in her book The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense.
Adlerian-based scholarly, clinical and social practices focus on the following topics:
- Mental Health Prevention
- Social Interest and Community Feeling
- Holism and the Creative Self
- Fictional Finalism, Teleology, and Goal constructs
- Psychological and Social Encouragement
- Inferiority, Superiority and Compensation
- Life Style / Style of Life
- Early Recollections (a projective technique)
- Family Constellation and Birth Order
- Life Tasks & Social Embeddedness
- The Conscious and Unconscious realms
- Private Logic & Common Sense (based in part on Kant's "sensus communis")
- Symptoms and Neurosis
- Safeguarding Behaviour
- Guilt and Guilt Feelings
- Socratic Questioning
- Dream Interpretation
- Child and Adolescent Psychology
- Democratic approaches to Parenting and Families
- Adlerian Approaches to Classroom Management
- Leadership and Organisational Psychology
From its inception, Adlerian psychology has always included both professional and lay adherents. Indeed, Adler felt that all
people could make use of the scientific insights garnered by psychology and he welcomed everyone, from decorated academics to
those with no formal education to participate in spreading the principles of Adlerian psychology.
Adler's approach to personality
Adler's 1912 book, Ueber den nervoesen Charakter (The Neurotic Character) defines his earlier key ideas. He
argued that human personality could be explained teleologically, separate strands dominated by the guiding purpose of the
individual's unconscious self ideal to convert feelings of inferiority to superiority (or
rather completeness). The desires of the self ideal were countered by social and ethical demands. If the corrective factors were
disregarded and the individual over-compensated, then an inferiority complex would occur, fostering the danger of the individual
becoming egocentric, power-hungry and aggressive or worse. Common therapeutic tools include the use of humor, historical
instances, and paradoxical injunctions.
Psychodynamics and teleology
Adler believed that human psychology is psychodynamic in nature yet unlike Freud's
metapsychology, which emphasizes instinctual demands, human psychology is guided by goals and
fuelled by a yet unknown creative force. Like Freud's instincts, Adler's fictive goals are largely unconscious. These goals have
a 'teleological' function. Constructivist Adlerians, influenced by neo-Kantian and Nietzschean ideas, view these 'teleological'
goals as "fictions" in the sense that Hans Vaihinger spoke of ("fictio"). Usually there is a fictional final goal which can be deciphered alongside of innumerable sub-goals. The
inferiority / superiority dynamic is constantly at work through various forms of compensation and over-compensation. For example,
in anorexia nervosa the fictive final goal is to "be perfectly thin" (overcompensation
on the basis of a feeling of inferiority). Hence, the fictive final goal can serve a persecutory function that is ever-present in
subjectivity (though its trace springs are usually unconscious). The end goal of being 'thin' is fictive however since it can
never be subjectively achieved.
Teleology also serves another vital function for Adlerians. Chilon's "hora telos" ("see the end, consider the consequences")
provides for both healthy and maladaptive psychodynamics. Here we also find Adler's emphasis on personal responsibility in
mentally healthy subjects who seek their own and the social good (Slavik & King, 2007).
Constructivism and metaphysics
The metaphysical thread of Adlerian theory does not problematise the notion of teleology since concepts such as eternity (an
ungraspable end where time ceases to exist) match the religious aspects that are held in tandem. In contrast, the constructivist
Adlerian threads (either humanist/modernist or postmodern in variant) seek to raise insight of the force of unconscious fictions - which carry all of the
inevitability of 'fate' - so long as one does not understand them. Here, 'teleology' itself is fictive yet experienced as quite
real. This aspect of Adler's theory is somewhat analogous to the principles developed in Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) and Cognitive Therapy (CT). Both Albert Ellis and Aaron T. Beck credit Adler as a major precursor to REBT and CT. Ellis in particular was a member of the
North American Society for Adlerian Psychology and served as an editorial board member for the Adlerian Journal Individual
Psychology.
As a psychodynamic system, Adlerians excavate the past of a client/patient in order to alter their future and increase
integration into community in the here-and-now. The here-and-now aspects are especially relevant to those Adlerians who emphasize
humanism and/or existentialism in their approaches.
Holism
Metaphysical Adlerians emphasise a spiritual holism in keeping with what Jan Smuts articulated
(Smuts coined the term holism), that is, the spiritual sense of one-ness that holism usually implies (etymology of holism -
traced to Holy-ness). Smuts believed that evolution involves a progressive series of lesser wholes integrating into larger ones.
Whilst Smuts' text "Holism and Evolution" is thought to be a work of science, it actually attempts to unify evolution with a
higher metaphysical principle (holism). The sense of connection and one-ness revered in various religious traditions (e.g.
Baha'i, Chrisitanity, Judaism, Islam, etc.) finds a strong complement in Adler's thought.
The pragmatic and materialist aspects to contextualizing members of communities, the construction of communities and the
socio-historical-political forces that shape communities matter a great deal when it comes to understanding an individual's
psychological make-up and functioning. This aspect of Adlerian psychology holds a high level of synergy with the field of
community psychology. However, Adlerian psychology, unlike community psychology, is
holistically concerned with both prevention and clinical treatment after-the-fact. Hence, Adler cannot be considered the "first
community psychologist", a discourse that formalized decades following Adler's death (King & Shelley, 2007).
Adlerian psychology,Carl Jung's Analytical Psychology, Gestalt Therapy and Karen Horney's psychodynamic approach are holistic
schools of psychology. These discourses eschew a reductive approach to understanding human psychology and psychopathology.
Typology
Adler (1956) developed a scheme of the so called personality types. These 'types' are to be taken as provisional or heuristic since he did not, in essence,
believe in personality types. The danger with typology is to lose sight of the individual's uniqueness and to gaze reductively,
acts that Adler opposed. Nevertheless, he intended to illustrate patterns that could denote a characteristic governed under the
overall style of life. Hence American Adlerians such as Harold Mosak have made use of Adler's
typology in this provisional sense:
- The Getting or Leaning type are those who selfishly take without giving back. These people also tend to be
anti-social and have low activity levels.
- The Avoiding types are those that hate being defeated. They may be successful, but have not taken any risks getting
there. They are likely to have low social contact in fear of rejection or defeat in any way.
- The Ruling or Dominant type strive for power and are willing to manipulate situations and people, anything to
get their way. People of this type are also prone to anti-social behavior.
- The Socially Useful types are those who are very outgoing and very active. They have a lot of social contact and
strive to make changes for the good.
These 'types' are typically formed in childhood and are expressions of the Style of Life.
On birth order
Adler often emphasized one's birth order as having an influence on the Style of Life and the strengths and weaknesses
in one's psychological make up. Birth Order referred to the placement of siblings within the family. Adler believed that the
firstborn child would be loved and nurtured by the family until the arrival of a second child. This second child would cause the
first born to suffer feelings of dethronement, no longer being the center of attention. Adler (1956) believed that in a
three-child family, the oldest child would be the most likely to suffer from neuroticism and substance addiction which he
reasoned was a compensation for the feelings of excessive responsibility "the weight of the world on one's shoulders" (e.g.
having to look after the younger ones) and the melancholic loss of that once supremely pampered position. As a result, he
predicted that this child was the most likely to end up in jail or an asylum. Youngest children would tend to be overindulged,
leading to poor social empathy. Consequently, the middle child, who would experience neither dethronement nor overindulgence, was
most likely to develop into a successful individual yet also most likely to be a rebel and to feel squeezed-out. Adler himself
was the second in a family of six children.
Adler never produced any scientific support for his interpretations on birth order roles. Yet the value of the hypothesis was
to extend the importance of siblings in marking the psychology of the individual beyond Freud's more limited emphasis on the
Mother and Father. Hence, Adlerians spend time therapeutically mapping the influence that siblings (or lack thereof) had on the
psychology of their clients. The idiographic approach entails an excavation of the phenomenology of one's birth order position
for likely influence on the subject's Style of Life. In sum, the subjective experiences of sibling positionality and
inter-relations are psychodynamically important for Adlerian therapists and personality theorists, not the cookbook predictions
that may or may not have been objectively true in Adler's time.
On homosexuality
Adler's ideas regarding non heteronormative sexuality and various social forms of
deviance have long been controversial. Adler's theory of homosexuality was entrenched in the dominant culture of the time, which
disapproved of same sex relationships. Along with prostitution and criminality, Adler had classified 'homosexuals' as falling
among the "failures of life". In 1917, he began his writings on homosexuality with a 52 page brochure, and sporadically published
more thoughts throughout the rest of his life.
The Dutch psychiatrist Gerard J. M. van den Aardweg underlines how Alfred Adler came to his conclusions for, in 1917, Adler
believed that he had established a connection between homosexuality and an inferiority complex towards one's own gender. This
point of view differed from Freud's equally problematic contention that homosexuality is rooted in narcissism or Jung's
conservative views of inappropriate expressions of contrasexuality vis-a-vis the archetypes of the Anima and Animus.
In contemporary Adlerian thought gays, lesbians, and bisexuals are not considered within the problematic discourse of the
"failures of life". There is evidence that Adler may have been moving towards abandoning the hypothesis. Towards the end of
Adler's life, in the mid 1930s, his opinion towards homosexuality began to shift. Elizabeth H. McDowell, a New York state family
social worker recalls undertaking supervision with Adler on a young man who was "living in sin" with an older man in New York
city. Adler asked her, "is he happy, would you say"? "Oh yes", Elizabeth replied. Adler then stated, "Well, why don't we leave
him alone" (Manaster, Painter, Deutsch, and Overholt, 1977, pp. 81-82). On reflection, Elizabeth found this comment to contain
"profound wisdom". In the 1930s the common attitude and medical opinion was quite unanimous, homosexuality was considered a moral
failing and a mental disease. In 1973 the American Psychiatric Association de-listed homosexuality as a mental disorder in their
diagnostic nomenclature (DSM). Christopher Shelley (1998), an Adlerian psychotherapist, published a volume of essays in the 1990s
that feature Freudian, (post)Jungian and Adlerian contributions that demonstrate affirmative shifts in the depth psychologies.
These shifts show how depth psychology can be utilized to support rather than pathologise gay and lesbian psychotherapy
clients.
On Parent education and prevention
Adler emphasized both treatment and prevention. As a psychodynamic psychology, Adlerians emphasize the foundational importance
of childhood in developing personality and any tendency towards various forms of psychopathology. The best way to inoculate
against what are now termed "personality disorders" (what Adler had called the "neurotic character"), or a tendency to various
neurotic conditions (depression, anxiety, etc.), is to train a child to be and feel an equal part of the family. This entails
developing a democratic character and the ability to exercise power reasonably rather than through compensation. Hence Adler
proselytized against corporal punishment and cautioned parents to refrain from the twin evils of pampering and neglect. The
responsibility to the optimal development of the child is not limited to the Mother or Father but to teachers and society more
broadly. Adler argued therefore that teachers, nurses, social workers, and so on require training in parent education in order to
complement the work of the family in fostering a democratic character. When a child does not feel equal and is enacted upon
(abused through pampering or neglect) they are likely to develop inferiority or superiority complexes and various accompanying
compensation strategies. These strategies exact a social toll by seeding higher divorce rates, the breakdown of the family,
criminal tendencies and subjective suffering in the various guises of psychopathology. Adlerians have long promoted parent
education groups especially those influenced by the famous Austrian/American Adlerian Rudolf
Dreikurs (Dreikurs & Soltz, 1964).
Spirituality, ecology and community
In a late work titled "Social Interest: A Challenge to Mankind" Adler (1938) turns to the subject of metaphysics where he integrates Jan Smuts' evolutionary holism with the idea of teleology and community:
"sub specie aeternitatus". Unabashedly, he argues his vision of society: "Social feeling means above all a struggle for a
communal form that must be thought of as eternally applicable... when humanity has attained its goal of perfection... an ideal
society amongst all mankind, the ultimate fulfillment of evolution." (p. 275). Adler follows this pronouncement with a defense of
metaphysics:
"I see no reason to be afraid of metaphysics; it has had a great influence on human life and development. We are not blessed
with the possession of absolute truth; on that account we are compelled to form theories for ourselves about our future, about
the results of our actions, etc. Our idea of social feeling as the final form of humanity - of an imagined state in which all the
problems of life are solved and all our relations to the external world rightly adjusted - is a regulative ideal, a goal that
gives our direction. This goal of perfection must bear within it the goal of an ideal community, because all that we value in
life, all that endures and continues to endure, is eternally the product of this social feeling." (Adler, 1938, pp. 275-276).
This social feeling for Adler is Gemeinschaftsgefuehl, a community feeling whereby one feels they belong with others and have
also developed an ecological connection with nature (plants, animals, the crust of this earth) and the cosmos as a whole, sub
specie aeternitatus. Clearly, Adler himself had little problem with adopting a metaphysical and spiritual point of view to
support his theories. Yet his overall theoretical yield provides ample room for the dialectical humanist (modernist) and
separately the postmodernist to explain the significance of community and ecology through differing lenses (even if Adlerians
have not fully considered how deeply divisive and contradictory these three threads of metaphysics, modernism, and post modernism
are).
Publications
Alfred Adler's key publications were The Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology (1927), Understanding Human
Nature (1927) and What Life Could Mean to You (1931). In his lifetime, Adler published more than 300 books and
articles.
The Alfred Adler Institute of Northwestern Washington has recently published the first ten of the twelve-volume set of The
Collected Clinical Works of Alfred Adler, covering his writings from 1898-1937. An entirely new translation of Adler's magnum
opus, The Neurotic Character, is featured in Volume 1.
- Volume 1 : The Neurotic Character — 1907
- Volume 2 : Journal Articles 1898-1909
- Volume 3 : Journal Articles 1910-1913
- Volume 4 : Journal Articles 1914-1920
- Volume 5 : Journal Articles 1921-1926
- Volume 6 : Journal Articles 1927-1931
- Volume 7 : Journal Articles 1931-1937
- Volume 8 : Lectures to Physicians & Medical Students
- Volume 9 : Case Histories
- Volume 10 : Case Readings & Demonstrations
- Volume 11 : Education for Prevention
- Volume 12 : The General System of Individual Psychology
Other key Adlerian texts
- Adler, A. (1956). The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler. H. L. Ansbacher and R. R. Ansbacher (Eds.). New York: Harper
Torchbooks.
- Carlson, J., Watts, R. E., & Maniacci, M. (2005). Adlerian Therapy: Theory and Practice. Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
- Dinkmeyer, D., Jr., & Dreikurs, R. (2000). Encouraging Children to Learn. Philadelphia: Brunner-Routledge.
- Handlbauer, B. (1998). The Freud - Adler controversy. Oxford, UK: Oneworld.
- Hoffman, E. (1994). The Drive for Self: Alfred Adler and the Founding of Individual Psychology. New York: Addison-Wesley
Co.
- Lehrer, R. (1999). Adler and Nietzsche. In: J. Golomb, W. Santaniello, and R. Lehrer. (Eds.). Nietzsche and Depth Psychology.
(pp. 229-246). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
- Mosak, H. H. & Di Pietro, R. (2005). Early Recollections: Interpretive Method and Application. New York: Routledge.
- Oberst, U. E. and Stewart, A. E. (2003). Adlerian Psychotherapy: An Advanced Approach to Individual Psychology. New York:
Brunner-Routledge.
- Slavik, S. & Carlson, J. (Eds.). (2005). Readings in the Theory of Individual Psychology. New York: Routledge.
References
Adler, A. (1938). Social Interest: A Challenge to Mankind. J. Linton and R. Vaughan (Trans.). London: Faber and Faber Ltd.
Adler, A. (1956). The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler. H. L. Ansbacher and R. R. Ansbacher (Eds.). New York: Harper
Torchbooks.
Connell, R. W. (1995). Masculinities. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
Dreikurs, R. & Soltz, V. (1964). Children the Challenge. New York: Hawthorn Books.
Ehrenwald, J. (1991). The History of Psychotherapy. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson Inc.
Ellenberger, H. (1970). The Discovery of the Unconscious. New York: Basic Books.
Fiebert, M. S. (1997). In and out of Freud's shadow: A chronology of Adler's relationship with Freud. Individual Psychology,
53(3), 241-269.
King, R. & Shelley, C. (2007). Community Feeling and Social Interest: Adlerian Parallels, Synergy, and Differences with
the Field of Community Psychology. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology. (in-press).
Manaster, G. J., Painter, G., Deutsch, D., & Overholt, B. J. (Eds.). (1977). Alfred Adler: As We Remember Him.
Chicago: North American Society of Adlerian Psychology.
Shelley, C. (Ed.). (1998). Contemporary Perspectives on Psychotherapy and Homosexualities. London: Free Association Books.
Slavik, S. & King, R. (2007). Adlerian therapeutic strategy. The Canadian Journal of Adlerian Psychology, 37(1), 3-16.
English language Adlerian journals
North America:
- The Journal of Individual Psychology (University of Texas Press)
- The Canadian Journal of Adlerian Psychology (Adlerian Psychology Association of British Columbia)
United Kingdom:
- Adlerian Yearbook (Adlerian Society, UK)
External links
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