Western Philosophy
20th-century philosophy |
Allan Bloom
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Name
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Birth
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14 September, 1930 Indianapolis, Indiana, United States
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Death
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7 October, 1992 Chicago, Illinois, United
States
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School/tradition
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Continental Philosophy, Platonism,
Conservatism
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Main interests
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Greek philosophy, History of
philosophy, Political philosophy, Nihilism, Continental philosophy, Politics
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Notable ideas
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Great Books, Socratic Irony
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Influences
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Pre-Socratics, Socrates, Plato, Machiavelli, William
Shakespeare, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Friedrich Nietzsche, Martin Heidegger, Leo Strauss
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Influenced
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Francis Fukuyama, Thomas Pangle,
Harvey C. Mansfield, Paul Wolfowitz,
Alan Keyes, Thomas G. West, Pierre Manent
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Allan David Bloom (14 September, 1930 in
Indianapolis, Indiana – 7 October,
1992 in Chicago, Illinois) was an American philosopher, essayist and academic. Bloom championed the idea of
'Great Books' education, as did his mentor Leo Strauss,
and became famous for criticism of contemporary American higher education in his
bestselling 1987 book, The Closing of the American Mind.
In 2000, years after Bloom's passing, Saul Bellow, Bloom's
close friend and teaching partner at the University of Chicago, wrote a novel
based on his colleague titled Ravelstein. In it, among other personal details
previously not disclosed publicly, it was revealed that Bloom was gay and likely died of complications from HIV-AIDS.[1]
Education
Allan Bloom was an only child born to social worker parents in Indianapolis. As a thirteen year old, he read a
Readers Digest article about the University of Chicago and told his parents he wanted to attend; his parents thought it was
unreasonable and did not encourage his hopes.[2]
Yet later, when his family moved to Chicago in 1944, his parents met a psychiatrist and
family friend whose son was enrolled in the University of Chicago’s humanities program for
gifted students. In 1946 Bloom was accepted to the same program and spent the next decade of his life enrolled at the university
in Chicago’s Hyde Park neighborhood.[2] This began his life-long passion for the 'idea' of the university.[3]
In the preface to Giants and Dwarfs: Essays, 1960-1990, he stated that his education "began with Freud and ended with Plato." The theme of this education was
self-knowledge, or self-discovery -- an idea that Bloom would later write seemed impossible to conceive of for a Midwestern
American boy. He credits Leo Strauss as the teacher who made this endeavor possible for
him.[4]
After earning his bachelor’s degree he enrolled in the Committee on Social Thought, where he was assigned Classicist David Grene as tutor. Grene recalled Bloom as an energetic and
humorous student completely dedicated to reading the classics, but with no definite career ambitions.[2] The Committee on Social
Thought was an unique interdisciplinary program that attracted a small number
of students due to its rigorous academic requirements and lack of clear employment opportunities after graduation. [2]. Bloom earned his Ph.D. from the Committee on Social Thought of the University of
Chicago in 1955.
Career
Bloom studied and taught abroad in Paris (1953-55) and Germany (1957). Upon returning to the United States he taught adult
education students at the University of Chicago with his friend Werner J. Dannhauser, author of Nietzsche's View of
Socrates. Bloom later taught at Yale, Cornell, Tel Aviv University and the University of Toronto, before returning to the University of Chicago.
In 1963, as a Professor at Cornell, Allan Bloom served as a faculty member of the
Telluride Association. The organization aims to foster an everyday synthesis of
self-governance and intellectual inquiry that enables students to develop their potential for leadership and public service. The
students receive free room and board in the Telluride House on the Cornell University
campus and run the house themselves, hiring staff, supervising maintenance and organizing seminars. Bloom had a major influence
on several residents of Telluride House, including Paul
Wolfowitz, one of the founding members of both the Project for the
New American Century and the New Citizenship Project.
During 1968, he published his most significant work of philosophical translation and interpretation, a translation of
Plato's Republic. Bloom strived to achieve
"the first translation of Plato's Republic that attempts to be strictly literal.[5]" Although the translation is not universally accepted, Bloom said he always conceptualized the
translator's role as a matchmaker between readers and the texts he translated and interpreted[6]. He repeated this effort while a Professor at the University of Toronto in 1978,
translating Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Emile. Bloom was an editor for the scholarly journal Political Theory as well as a contributor to History of Political Philosophy (edited by Joseph
Cropsey and Leo Strauss) among many other publications during his years of academic
teaching. Bloom also translated and commented upon Rousseau's "Letter to D'Alembert On the Theater," relying heavily upon
Plato's Laws.
After returning to Chicago, he befriended and taught courses with Saul Bellow. Bellow
wrote the Preface to The Closing of the American Mind in 1987, the book that made Bloom famous and wealthy. Bellow later
immortalized his dead friend in the novel Ravelstein. Bloom's last book was
Love and Friendship, where he offered interpretations of novels by Stendhal, Jane Austen,
Flaubert, and Tolstoy in light of Rousseau's influence on the Romantic movement, of plays by
William Shakespeare, and finally of Plato's
Symposium.
Philosophy
Bloom's work is not easily defined, yet there is a thread that links all of his published material. Allan Bloom was a
philosopher and he was primarily concerned with preserving the philosophical way of life for the future generation. He strived to
do this through both scholarly and popular writing. Accordingly, his writings fall into two
basic categories: scholarly (e.g. Plato's
Republic) and popular political comment (e.g. Closing of the American Mind). On the surface, this is a valid
distinction, yet closer examinations of Bloom’s works reveal a direct connection between the two types of expression, which
reflect his view of philosophy and the role of the philosopher in political life.
Plato's Republic
Allan Bloom's translation and interpretation, Second edition 1991.
Bloom’s translation and interpretive essay on Plato’s Republic was published in 1968. For
Bloom, previous translations were lacking. In particuliar, Bloom was eager to sweep away the Christian Platonist layers that had coated the translations and scholarly analysis. In 1971, he wrote,
"With the Republic, for example, a long tradition of philosophy tells us what the issues are. [...] This sense of
familiarity may be spurious; we may be reading the text as seen by the tradition rather than raising Plato's own
questions[7].
Up until the late 20th century, most English language Platonists were following a tradition that blended Christian
theology with Plato. This view, named Christian Platonism,
interprets Plato as prophet of the coming Christian age, a monotheist in a polytheist world. In this school, Socrates is considered a pre-Christian
saint; the tradition emphasizes Socrates' 'goodness' and other-worldly attributes, such as
accepting his death like a martyr. In the words of George Grant, "Straussians say that Christianity led to overextension of soul."[8]
Yet there developed a different type of Platonism, Pagan Platonism, a type of which Bloom became aware and most certainly adopted from his teacher
Leo Strauss (1899-1973), the most important representative of this thought in the past
century.[9] Adherents have a significantly different view
of Plato’s Republic.
Strauss developed this point of view by studying ancient Islamic and Jewish theorists, such as Al-Farabi (870-950) and Moses Maimonides (1135-1204). Each philosopher was
faithful to his religion but sought to integrate classical political philosophy into Islam
and Judaism. Islam has a prophet-legislator Muhammad and
similarly, Jewish law is a function of its theology. Thus these philosophers had to write with great skill, incorporating the
ideas of Plato and Aristotle, many of which contradicted or
contravened Islamic or Jewish thought and practice, without being seen to challenge the theology. According to Strauss,
Al-Farabi and Moses Maimonides were really writing for
potential philosophers within the pious faithful. Strauss calls this the discovery of esoteric writing, and he first presents it
as a possibility in Persecution and the Art of Writing (1952). Christianity differed from these faiths in that philosophy
was always free to establish a foothold in Christendom, without necessarily being seen as heretical. All one has to do is think of Saint Augustine (354-430)
and his City of God and On Free Will.
Strauss took this insight and applied it eventually to Plato’s writings themselves. Bloom's
translation and essay of the Republic takes this stance; therefore, it is radically different in many important aspects
than the previous translations and interpretations of the Republic. Most notable is Bloom's discussion of Socratic irony. In fact, irony is the key to Bloom’s take on the Republic.
(See his discussion of Books II-VI of the Republic.) Allan Bloom says a philosopher is immune to irony because he can see
the tragic as comic and comic as tragic. Bloom refers to
Socrates, the philosopher par excellence, in his Interpretative Essay stating, "Socrates can go naked where others go
clothed; he is not afraid of ridicule. He can also contemplate sexual intercourse where others are stricken with terror; he is
not afraid of moral indignation. In other words he treats the comic seriously and the tragic lightly[10]. Thus irony in the Republic refers to the 'Just
City in Speech'. Bloom looks at it not as a model for future society, nor as a template
for the human soul; rather, it is an ironic city, an example of the distance between philosophy and
every potential philosopher. Bloom follows Strauss in suggesting that the 'Just City in Speech'
is not natural; it is man-made, and thus ironic.
Closing of the American Mind
Closing of the American Mind (ISBN 5-551-86868-0) was published in 1987, five years after Bloom published an essay in
The National Review about the failure of universities to serve the needs of students. With the encouragement of
Saul Bellow, his colleague at the University of Chicago, he expanded his thoughts into a
book "about a life, I've led"[2] that critically
reflected on the current state of higher education in American universities. His friends and admirers imagined the work would be
a modest success, as did Bloom, who recognized his publisher’s modest advance to complete the project as a lack of sales
confidence. Yet on the momentum of strong initial reviews, including one by Christopher Lehmann-Haupt in the New York
Times, it became an unexpected best seller, eventually selling close to half a million copies in hardback and
remaining at number one on the New York Times Non-fiction Best Seller list for four months.[11]
Allan Bloom's
Closing of the American Mind.
Bloom's Closing of the American Mind is a critique of the contemporary university and how Bloom sees it as failing its
students. Also, Bloom criticizes analytic philosophy as a movement, "Professors of
these schools simply would not and could not talk about anything important, and they themselves do not represent a philosophic
life for the students." To a great extent, Bloom's criticism revolves around the devaluation of the Great Books of Western
Thought as a source of wisdom. However, Bloom's critique extends beyond the university to speak to the general crisis in American
society. "Closing of the American Mind" draws analogies between the United States and the
Weimar Republic. The modern liberal philosophy, he says, enshrined in the
Enlightenment thought of John Locke - that a
just society could be based upon self-interest alone, coupled by the emergence of relativism in American thought - had led to
this crisis.
For Bloom, this created a void in the souls of Americans, into which demagogic radicals as exemplified by 60's student leaders
could leap. (In the same fashion, Bloom suggests, that the Nazi brownshirts once filled the
lacuna created in German society by the Weimar
Republic.) In the second instance, the higher calling of philosophy/reason understood as freedom of thought, had been eclipsed by a pseudo-philosophy, or an ideology of thought. Relativism was one feature of modern liberal
philosophy that had subverted the Platonic/Socratic teaching. The Great Books of Western Thought simply became the ramblings of
dead white men rather than beacons leading to the highest calling.
The power behind Bloom's critique of contemporary social movements at play in
universities or society at large is derived from his philosophical orientation. The failure of contemporary liberal education leads to the social and sexual habits of modern students, and their inability to
fashion a life for themselves beyond the mundane offerings touted as success. Bloom argues that commercial pursuits had become
more highly valued than the philosophic quest for truth or the civilized pursuits of honor and glory.
In particular, he looked seriously at the effects of popular music on the lives of
students, placing pop music, or the generic term- "rock music"- in a historical context from
Plato’s Republic to Nietzsche’s Dionysian longings. Treating it with infinite seriousness, he poured fresh attention on the
industry, its target marketing to children and teenagers, its top performers, and its hypocritical pretensions as
liberation and freedom. Although labeled as
racist bigotry reprised by some,[12] Bloom, informed by
Socrates, Aristotle, Rousseau and Nietzsche, explored music’s power in the human soul. He cites the soldier who throws himself into battle at the urging of the drum
corps, the pious believer who prays under the spell of a religious hymn, the lover seduced
by the romantic guitar, and points towards the tradition of philosophy that treated music
education as paramount. He names Mick Jagger as a cardinal representative of the hypocrisy
and intellectual sterility of rock. Pop music employs sexual images and language to enthrall the young, and persuade them that
their petty rebelliousness is authentic politics, when in fact they are being controlled by the money managers successful
performers like Jagger quietly serve. In fact, Bloom claims Jagger is a hero to many university
students who envy his fame and wealth, but are really just bored by the lack of options before them.[13] Along with the absence of literature in the lives of the young, and their
fractured erotic relationships, the first part of Closing tries to explain the current state of education in a fashion
beyond the purview of an economist or psychiatrist-
contemporary culture's leading umpires.
Critical reception
The success of the work brought a wide spectrum of critics, making some scholars interesting bed fellows. Martha Nussbaum, a classical philosopher and feminist, and
Harry V. Jaffa, a neoconservative scholar, both claimed Bloom was deeply influenced by
19th-century European philosophers, especially Friedrich Nietzsche. Nussbaum wrote
that, for Bloom, Nietzsche had been disastrously influential in modern American thought.[14] Jaffa went so far as to point out the lack of moral mention of the role of
gay rights were having in the lives of current students.[15] According to Jaffa, while Bloom discusses contemporary social
movements, particularly those that gained ascendancy in the 1960's, he is virtually silent on the gay rights movement[15]
The public reception of Closing of the American Mind suggested that even liberals were uneasy about the consequences of
the moral relativism they claimed as their own. Thus Norman Podhoretz in his review noted that the close mindness in the title alludes to the paradoxical
consequence of the academic "open mind" found in liberal political thought. Namely "the narrow and intolerant dogmatism" that
dismisses any attempt, by Plato or the Hebrew Bible for example, to provide a rational basis for moral judgments. Podhoretz
continued, "Bloom goes on to charge liberalism with vulgarizing the noble ideals of freedom and equality, and he offers
brilliantly acerbic descriptions of the sexual revolution and the feminist movement, which he sees as products of this process of
vulgarization."[16]
Quotes
- "As it now stands, students have powerful images of what a perfect body is and pursue it incessantly. But deprived of
literary guidance, they no longer have any image of a perfect soul, and hence do not long to have one. They do not even imagine
that there is such a thing." (Closing of the American Mind, 67)
- "The substance of my being has been informed by the books I learned to care for." (Closing of the American Mind,
245)
- "Education is the movement from darkness to light." (Closing of the American Mind, 265)
- "The most successful tyranny is not the one that uses force to assure uniformity but the one that removes the awareness of
other possibilities, that makes it seem inconceivable that other ways are viable, that removes the sense that there is an
outside." (Closing of the American Mind, 249)
- "Law may prescribe that the male nipples be made equal to the female ones, but they still will not give milk." (Closing of
the American Mind, 131)
- There is one thing a professor can be absolutely sure of; almost every student entering the university believes, or says he
believes, that truth is relative. If this belief is put to the test, one can count on the student's reaction: they will be
uncomprehending. (Closing of the American Mind)
- Music is the medium of the human soul in its most ecstatic condition of wonder and terror. Nietzsche, who in large
measure agrees with Plato's analysis, says...that a mixture of cruelty and coarse sensuality characterized this state... Music is
the soul's primitive and primary speech... without articulate speech or reason. It is not only not reasonable, it is hostile to
reason. (Closing of the American Mind, 72)
- Rock music has one appeal only, a barbaric appeal, to sexual desire- not love, not eros, but sexual desire undeveloped and
untutored." (Closing of the American Mind, 72)
- 'The relativity of truth is not a theoretical insight but a moral postulate, the condition of a free society, or so [the
students] see it. They have all been equipped with this framework early on, and it is the modern replacement for the inalienable
natural rights that used to be the traditional American grounds for a free society. That it is a moral issue for students is
revealed by the character of their response when challenged -- a combination of disbelief and indignation: "Are you an
absolutist?," the only alternative they know, uttered in the same tone as "Are you a monarchist?" or "Do you really believe in
witches?"' (Closing of the American Mind, 25)
Bibliography (of Published texts)
- Bloom, Allan. 2000. Shakespeare on Love & Friendship. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press.
- Bloom, Allan. 1993. Love and Friendship. New York: Simon & Schuster.
- Bloom, Allan. 1991. Giants and Dwarfs: Essays, 1960-1990. New York: Touchstone Books.
- Bloom, Allan. 1987. Closing of the American Mind. New York: Simon & Schuster.
- Bloom, Allan. 1968 (2nd ed 1991). Republic of Plato. (translated with notes and an interpretive essay). New York:
Basic Books.
- Bloom, Allan, Charles Butterworth, Christopher Kelly (Edited and
translated), and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. 1968. Letter to d’Alembert on the theater in politics and the arts. Ithaca, N.Y.:
Cornell University Press; Agora ed.
- Bloom, Allan, and Harry V. Jaffa. 1964. Shakespeare's Politics. New York: Basic Books.
- Bloom, Allan, and Steven J. Kautz ed. 1991. Confronting the Constitution: The challenge to Locke, Montesquieu, Jefferson,
and the Federalists from Utilitarianism, Historicism, Marxism, Freudism. Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute for
Public Policy Research.
- Bloom, Allan, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. 1979. Emile (translator) with
introduction. New York: Basic Books.
- Plato, Seth Benardete, and Allan Bloom. 2001. Plato's Symposium: A translation by
Seth Benardete with commentaries by Allan Bloom and Seth Benardete. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Bibliography on Allan Bloom
- Atlas, James. “Chicago’s Grumpy Guru: Best-Selling Professor Allan Bloom and the Chicago Intellectuals.” New York Times
Magazine. 3 January 1988.
- "The Constitution in Full Bloom". 1990. Harvard Law Review 104, no. 2 (Dec90): 645.
- Bayles, Martha. 1998. "Body and soul: the musical miseducation of youth." Public Interest, no. 131, Spring 98:
36.
- Beckerman, Michael. 2000. "Ravelstein Knows Everything, Almost". New York Times (28 May 2000) .
- Bellow, Adam. 2005. "Opening the American Mind". National Review 57, no. 23 (12/19/2005) : 102.
- Bellow, Saul. 2000. Ravelstein. New York, New York: Penguin.
- Butterworth, Charles E., "On Misunderstanding Allan Bloom: The Response to The Closing of the American Mind." Academic
Questions 2, no. 4: 56.
- Edington, Robert V. 1990. "Allan Bloom's message to the state universities". Perspectives on Political Science; 19,
no. 3
- Fulford, Robert. "Saul Bellow, Allan Bloom, and Abe Ravelstein." Globe and Mail, 2 November 1999.
- Goldstein, William. “The Story behind the Best Seller: Allan Bloom’s Closing of the American Mind.” Publishers
Weekly. 3 July 1987.
- Hook, Sidney. 1989. "Closing of the American Mind: An Intellectual Best Seller Revisited". American Scholar 58, no.
Winter: 123.
- Iannone, Carol. 2003. "What's Happened to Liberal Education?". Academic Questions 17, no. 1, 54.
- Jaffa, Harry V. "Humanizing Certitudes and Impoverishing Doubts: A Critique of Closing of the American Mind."
Interpretation. 16 Fall 1988.
- Kahan, Jeffrey. 2002. "Shakespeare on Love and Friendship." Women's Studies 31, no. 4, 529.
- Kinzel, Till. 2002. Platonische Kulturkritik in Amerika. Studien zu Allan Blooms The Closing of the American Mind.
Berlin: Duncker & Humblot.
- Matthews, Fred. "The Attack on 'Historicism': Allan Bloom's Indictment of Contemporary American Historical Scholarship."
American Historical Review 95, no. 2, 429.
- Mulcahy, Kevin V. 1989. "Civic Illiteracy and the American Cultural Heritage." Journal of Politics 51, no. 1,
177.
- Nussbaum, Martha. "Undemocratic Vistas," New York Review of Books 34, no.17 (5 November 1987)
- Orwin, Clifford. "Remembering Allan Bloom." American Scholar 62, no. 3,
423.
- Palmer, Michael, and Thomas Pangle ed. 1995. Political Philosophy and the Human Soul: Essays in Memory of Allan Bloom.
Lanham, Maryland, U.S.A.: Rowman & Littlefield Pub.
- Rosenberg, Aubrey. 1981. "Translating Rousseau." University of Toronto Quarterly 50, no. 3, 339.
- Schaub, Diana. 1994. "Erotic adventures of the mind." Public Interest, no. 114, 104.
- Slater, Robert O. (2005) Allan Bloom. In John Shook (Ed.) The Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers. (Vol 1) Bristol, England:
Thoemmes Press.
- Sleeper, Jim. 2005. "Allan Bloom and the Conservative Mind". New York Times Book Review (4 September 2005) :
27.
- Wrightson, Katherine M. 1998. "The Professor as Teacher: Allan Bloom, Wayne Booth, and the Tradition of Teaching at the
University of Chicago." Innovative Higher Education 23, no. 2, 103.
Notes
- ^ Hitchens, Christopher (2002). Unacknowledged Legislation: Writers in the Public Sphere. Verso,
226.
- ^ a b c d e Atlas, James.
“Chicago’s Grumpy Guru: Best-Selling Professor Allan Bloom and the Chicago Intellectuals.” New York Times Magazine. 3
January 1988. 12.
- ^ Bloom, Allan. 1987. Closing of the American Mind, p.243. New York:
Simon & Schuster
- ^ Bloom, Allan. 1991. Giants and Dwarfs: Essays, 1960-1990, p.11. New
York: Touchstone Books
- ^ Bloom, Allan. 1968( 2nd ed 1991). Republic of Plato. (translated with notes
and an interpretive essay). New York: Basic Books.
- ^ Bloom, Allan. 1991. Giants and Dwarfs: Essays, 1960-1990. New York:
Touchstone Books
- ^ "The Political Philosopher in a Democratic Society," Giants &
Dwarfs, 1990, p.106)
- ^ George Grant: A Biography. Toronto: University of Toronto Press,
1993. p. 292.
- ^ George Grant: A Biography. Toronto: University of Toronto Press,
1993. Grant's private correspondence in 1983 states: "I have for quite a while believed that one of the deepest strains in
Strauss' writing about Plato has been to criticize the long hold of Christian Platonism in the western and eastern interpretation
of Plato. He has done this wisely & with no foolishly polemical spirit" -- p. 293
- ^ Bloom, Allan. Republic of Plato, "Interpretative Essay," p.387. New
York: Basic Books
- ^ Goldstein, William. “The Story behind the Best Seller: Allan Bloom’s
Closing of the American Mind.” Publishers Weekly. 3 July 1987.
- ^ Zappa, Frank. "On Junk Food for the Soul." New Perspective's
Quarterly. 1987. Available online at: "On Junk Food for the Soul"
- ^ Bloom, Allan. “Music” p. 68-81. Closing of the American Mind. New
York: Simon & Schuster.
- ^ Nussbaum, Martha. "Undemocratic Vistas," New York Review of Books
34, no.17 (5 November 1987)
- ^ a b Jaffa, Harry V. "Humanizing Certitudes and Impoverishing Doubts: A Critique of
Closing of the American Mind". Interpretation. 16 Fall 1988.
- ^ Podhoretz, Norman. “Conservative Book Becomes a Best-Seller.” Human
Events 11 July 1987: 5–6.
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