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Alvar Aalto

 
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: Hugo Alvar Henrik Aalto
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(born Feb. 3, 1898, Kuortane, Fin., Russian Empire — died May 11, 1976, Helsinki) Finnish architect and designer. He graduated from the Technical Institute of Helsinki and in 1925 married Aino Marsio, who served as his collaborator. His reputation rests on a distinctive style that blends classic Modernism, indigenous materials (especially timber), and personal expression. His unique blending of Modernism and informal regional character was perhaps best expressed in his civic centre in Säynätsalo (1950 – 52), with its simple forms in red brick, wood, and copper. He remains one of the Modern movement's most popular architects; reproductions of his bent laminated wood furniture appear in households worldwide.

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Art Encyclopedia: (Hugo) Alvar (Henrik) Aalto
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(b Kuortane, 3 Feb 1898; d Helsinki, 11 May 1976). Finnish architect and designer. His success as an architect lay in the individual nature of his buildings, which were always designed with their surrounding environment in mind and with great attention to their practical demands. He never used forms that were merely aesthetic or conditioned by technical factors but looked to the more permanent models of nature and natural forms. He was not anti-technology but believed that technology could be humanized to become the servant of human beings and the promoter of cultural values. One of his important maxims was that architects have an absolutely clear mission: to humanize mechanical forms.

See the Abbreviations for further details.


Biography: Hugo Alvar Henrik Aalto
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Hugo Alvar Henrik Aalto (1898-1976) was a Finnish architect, furniture designer and town planner. More broadly, he was a comprehensive designer with a humanistic concern for man and his total environment.

On Feb. 3, 1898, Alvar Aalto was born in Kuortane. After service during the war of national liberation, he studied architecture at the Helsinki Polytechnic Institute and graduated in 1921.

His first major design was for the Municipal Library, Viipuri (now Vyborg, Russia), which won the competition of 1927, although local conservatism prevented construction until 1934. The building includes an auditorium at ground level with a glazed wall overlooking the parkland. The library accommodation, in contrast, has blank walls and indirect lighting to prevent direct sunlight from annoying the readers. Aalto's building for the newspaper Turun-Sanomat in Turku (1928) demonstrates his feeling for structure, especially in the use of tapered columns.

The qualities of the Viipuri library and the Turku newspaper office emerge again in perhaps the most humanitarian design of the 20th century, Aalto's Tuberculosis Sanatorium in Paimio (1929-1933). The building is carefully sited among pine trees. The patients' rooms have full morning sunlight; artificial light is from behind the patient's head. Rooms are painted in soft tones with darker ceilings to create a restful effect. Sound is absorbed by carefully positioned insulation, cupboards are hung for ease of floor cleaning, windows are designed to be draftproof, faucets of washbasins are tilted to prevent splashing, and doorknobs are shaped to fit the hand. Aalto designed the furniture specifically for hospital use. The whole scheme is an essay in consideration by the designer for the user.

In 1932 Aalto designed his first chair with a plywood seat and back in one piece on a tubular metal frame. Soon he made his furniture entirely of wood, achieving in this material what Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Marcel Breuer had done a few years earlier in tubular steel. Aalto perfected designs which could readily be mass-produced.

Aalto's competition entry for planning the Munkkiniemi district of Helsinki (1934), his Sunila Cellulose Factory and adjacent housing near Kotka (1935), and his plan for the city of Varkaus (1936) led him into the realm of urban development. His Finnish Pavilion (1938-1939) for the New York World's Fair resulted in a teaching appointment at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, where he designed the Baker House Dormitory (1947-1948).

In 1944, at the conclusion of the Finnish-Russian War, Finland was forced to cede to the Soviet Union the Karelian Isthmus and resettle one-fifth of the nation's population. Aalto's planning schemes provided a lead in this immense task. The first reconstruction plan Aalto made was for the city of Rovaniemi. The garden city of Tapiola, designed by the National Housing Foundation of Finland in 1952, was an outgrowth of Aalto's concepts.

His most famed sculpture is at Suomussalmi, where the Finns successfully halted a Russian attack in 1940. The memorial, a leaning bronze pillar 30 feet high, was designed in 1960. His architectural masterpieces include the municipal building in Säynätsalo (1952) and the Vuoksenniska Church (1959).

Aalto's buildings are carefully integrated into the landscape. They also have internal spatial relationships that are enhanced by furniture and sculpture of his own design and by his concern for the workability of each component part within the building. "The very essence of architecture consists of a variety and development reminiscent of natural organic life. This is the only true style in architecture," Aalto said in Alvar Aalto; The Decisive Years.

A member of the Academy of Finland since 1955, Aalto died in Helsinki on May 11, 1976.

Further Reading

The complete works of Aalto, with plans and photographs, were edited by him and Karl Fleig in Alvar Aalto (1963; 2d ed. 1965). See also Frederick Gutheim, Alvar Aalto (1960) and Schildt, Göran, Alvar Aalto; The Decisive Years, Rizzali, 1986. Aalto's furniture is discussed in the New York Museum of Modern Art publication, Architecture and Furniture: Aalto (1938).

Modern Design Dictionary: Alvar Aalto
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(1898-1976)

Alvar Aalto is the most celebrated Finnish architect and designer working in furniture, lighting, glass, and textiles. His work is characterized by the use of organic forms and natural materials allied to the emphatically contemporary aesthetic tenets of Modernism. Alvar Aalto trained as an architect at the Helsinki University of Technology, completing his studies in 1921. From 1923 to 1927 he established an office in Jvaslaka, in Turku from 1927 to 1933, and then in Helsinki until his death. In 1924 he married architect-designer Aino Marsio, who collaborated with him on many designs until her early death in 1949 (see Aalto, Aino). Amongst Aalto's best-known buildings were the Paimio Sanatorium (1929-33) and the Municipal Library at Viipuri. His use of organic forms and natural materials blended with the Modernist aesthetic, which was evident at Viipuri, was also embraced in his design for the Finnish Pavilion at the New York World's Fair of 1939-40, which did much to establish his reputation in the United States. After the war he was appointed Professor of Architecture at the Massachussets Institute of Technology (1946-8) and in 1949 won a competition for design of the village centre of Säynätsälo, one of his most significant projects.

From the mid-1920s, in common with many other avant-garde designers in Germany, France, and elsewhere, Aalto designed tubular steel furniture. However, his reputation was founded on the use of moulded plywood, with which he began to experiment from 1929, working closely with Otto Korhonen, a factory manager at Huonekalu-ja Rakennustyotehdas. He found his métier in the sweeping organic forms of the Paimio armchair (1930-3) and the bentwood stacking stool (1933) for the Viipuri Library. The former was specially designed for the Sanatorium, its flowing, scroll-like form and laminated birch and plywood elements embodying practicality and functionalism—it could be easily cleaned and was able to be moved quietly, thus suiting its context. He was also well-known for glass designs, winning several competitions, resulting in designs such as the Riihimaki Flower set of stacking vases (1932) and the Savoy vase (1936) manufactured by Iittala.

During the 1930s Aalto's work attracted increasing recognition outside Scandinavia, his furniture being shown in an exhibition sponsored by the Architectural Review and at the Milan Triennale in 1933, the same year that the Aaltos moved their office to Helsinki. Many of his designs were manufactured and sold through the Artek Company, established in Helsinki in 1935 and sales at home and abroad radically increased. Aalto's international reputation was consolidated by the showing of many of his and Aino's designs in the Finnish Pavilion at the 1937 Paris Exposition and the mounting of a solo exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art, New York, in 1938. After the war Aalto's principal furniture designs were produced in 1946-7 and 1954-6, including the elegant Armchair 406 for the Villa Mairea (1946) and the ash veneer Stool X601 (1954).

Architecture and Landscaping: Hugo Alvar Henrik Aalto
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(1898–1976)

Finnish architect and highly-regarded C20 designer, he started his career as a Neo-Classicist in Jyväskylä (1923–7), but, influenced by CIAM and by Aino Marsio (1894–1949)—his wife and partner from 1925—became involved in International Modernism after his office moved to Turku. The Standard Apartment Block, Turku (1927–9), incorporated prefabricated concrete units, while the Turun Sanomat Building (1928–30) was the first of his designs to incorporate Le Corbusier's ‘Five Points of a New Architecture’. Among his early buildings were the Viipuri Library (1927, 1930–5) and the Paimio Tuberculosis Sanatorium (1928–33), which established his credentials as an architect of international stature with his own distinctive idiosyncrasies. In the Turku years Aalto's reputation grew, not least because of his furniture designs in which bent plywood played a considerable part: his three-legged stacking-stool (1938) is ubiquitous. Timber also enjoyed a growing role in his architecture, as in his country's Pavilion at the Paris Exposition Universelle (1937) and the Villa Mairea at Noormarkku (1937–9). His more personal style, in which curved walls, monopitched roofs, and brick-and-timber construction were prominent, evolved after the 1939–45 war: perhaps the most memorable designs are the Baker House Halls of Residence at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA., with its serpentine walls and projecting staircases (1946–9); the Town Hall at Säynätsalo, with its brickwork and monopitched roofs (1949–52); and the Finlandia Conference Centre and Concert Hall, Helsinki (1962–75). His interest in all aspects of design extended to many artefacts: his celebrated vases, for example, are still given as wedding-presents in Finland today. In 1952 Aalto married Elissa Mäkiniemi (d. 1992–94). who worked on many later projects, taking over the practice after his death.

Bibliography

  • Cuito (ed.) (2002a)
  • Fleig (ed.) (1963–78)
  • W. Miller (1984)
  • Nebraska (1999)
  • Placzek (ed.) (1982)
  • Paavilainen (ed.) (1982)
  • Porphyrios (1982)
  • Quantrill (1983, 1995)
  • P. Reed (ed.) (1998)
  • Richard Weston
  • Schildt (1994, 1998)
  • Jane Turner (1996)
  • Trencher (1996)
  • Tuukanen (ed.) (2002)
  • Weston (1995)

The full bibliography for this book is available to download as a pdf file.
Download the bibliography for A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture (PDF: 1.2MB)

 
Columbia Encyclopedia: Alvar Aalto
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Aalto, Alvar (ŏl'vär äl'tō), 1898-1976, Finnish architect and furniture designer. Aalto is considered one of the foremost architects of the 20th cent. Most of his designs were made in collaboration with his wife, Aino Marsio, the celebrated furniture designer, until her death in 1949. Aalto's work adapted Finnish building traditions to modern European techniques and to the specific function of the structure in boldly expressive style. His designs for the municipal library at Viipuri (1927-35; destroyed when it was made part of Russian territory in 1940) and the tuberculosis sanitarium at Paimio (1929-33) were outstanding functionalist works. He gained international fame by his remarkable designs for laminated-wood furniture and by his plans for the Finnish pavilions at the expositions in Paris (1937) and New York (1939). Appointed professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1940, he designed there the serpentine Baker House (1947-48). After World War II he was active in reconstruction in Finland. His major postwar works included a number of striking civic buildings in Helsinki, the Maison Carré in Paris (designed in collaboration with Elissa Makkinheimo, his second wife), and the Wolfsburg cultural center in Germany.

Bibliography

See his complete works, ed. by K. Fleig (tr. of 3d ed., 2 vol., 1970-71); studies by F. A. Gutheim (1960) and P. D. Pearson (1978).

Wikipedia: Alvar Aalto
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"Aalto" redirects here. For other uses, see Aalto (disambiguation).
Alvar Aalto
Aaltoarchitects.jpg
Alvar Aalto with wife Aino
Personal information
Name Alvar Aalto
Nationality Finnish
Birth date February 3, 1898
Birth place Kuortane, Finland
Date of death May 11, 1976 (aged 78)
Place of death Helsinki, Finland
Work
Significant buildings Paimio Sanatorium

Viipuri Library
Villa Mairea
Baker House
Finlandia Hall
Significant projects Helsinki City Centre
Significant design Savoy Vase

Paimio Chair
Awards and prizes RIBA Gold Medal

AIA Gold Medal

Hugo Alvar Henrik Aalto (February 3 1898, Kuortane – May 11 1976, Helsinki) was a Finnish architect and designer, sometimes called the "Father of Modernism" in the nordic countries. His work includes architecture, furniture, textiles and glassware. Aalto's early career runs in parallel with the rapid economic growth and industrialization of Finland during the first half of the twentieth century and many of his clients were industrialists; among these were the Ahlström-Gullichsen family.[1]

Contents

Biography

Life

Alvar Aalto was born in Kuortane, Finland.[2] His father, Johan Henrik Aalto, was a Finnish-speaking land-surveyor and his mother, Selly (Selma) Matilda (née Hackstedt) was a post-mistress. When Aalto was 5 years old, the family moved to Alajärvi, and from there to Jyväskylä in Central Finland. Aalto studied at the Jyväskylä Lyceum school, completing his basic education in 1916. In 1916 he then enrolled to study architecture at the Helsinki University of Technology, graduating in 1921.

In 1923 he returned to Jyväskylä, where he opened his first architectural office. The following year he married architect Aino Marsio. Their honeymoon journey to Italy sealed an intellectual bond with the culture of the Mediterranean region that was to remain important to Aalto for the rest of his life. Aalto moved his office to Turku in 1927, and started collaborating with architect Erik Bryggman. The office moved again in 1933 to Helsinki.

Alvar Aalto Studio, Helsinki (1954-6)

The Aaltos designed and built a joint house-office (1935-36) for themselves in Munkkiniemi, Helsinki, but later (1954-56) had a purpose-built office built in the same neighbourhood. Aino and Alvar Aalto had 2 children, a daughter Johanna "Hanni" Alanen, born Aalto, 1925, and a son Hamilkar Aalto, 1928. In 1926 the young Aaltos designed and had built a summer cottage in Alajärvi, Villa Flora. Aino Aalto died of cancer in 1949. In 1952 Aalto married architect Elissa Mäkiniemi (died 1994), who had been working as an assistant in his office. In 1952 Aalto designed and had built a summer cottage, the so-called Experimental House, for himself and his new wife in Muuratsalo in Central Finland. Alvar Aalto died on May 11, 1976, in Helsinki.[3]

Career

Although he is sometimes regarded as among the first and most influential architects of Nordic modernism, a closer examination of the historical facts reveals that Aalto (while a pioneer in Finland) closely followed and had personal contacts with other pioneers in Sweden, in particular Gunnar Asplund and Sven Markelius. What they and many others of that generation in the Nordic countries had in common was that they started off from a classical education and were first designing in the so-called Nordic Classicism style - a style that had been a reaction to the previous dominant style of National Romanticism - before moving, in the late 1920s, towards Modernism.

Auditorium of the Viipuri Municipal Library in the 1930s.

In Aalto's case this shift is epitomised by the Viipuri Library (1927-35), which went through a transformation from an originally classical competition entry proposal to the completed high-modernist building. Yet his humanistic approach is in full evidence in the library: the interior displays natural materials, warm colours, and undulating lines. Due to problems over financing and a change of site, the Viipuri Library project lasted eight years, and during that same time he also designed the Turun Sanomat Building (1929-30) and Paimio Sanatorium (1929-33). Thus, the Turun Sanomat Building first heralded Aalto's move towards modernism, and this was then carried forward both in the Paimio Sanatorium and in the on-going design for the library. Although the Turun Sanomat Building and Paimio Sanatorium are comparatively pure modernist works, they too carried the seeds of his questioning of such an orthodox modernist approach and a move to a more daring, synthetic attitude.

Aalto was a member of the Congres Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM), attending the second congress in Frankfurt in 1929 and the fourth congress in Athens in 1933, where he established a close friendship with László Moholy-Nagy and Sigfried Giedion. It was during this time that he followed closely the work of the main driving force behind the new modernism, Le Corbusier.

It was not until the completion of the Paimio Sanatorium (1929) and Viipuri Library (1935) that Aalto first achieved world attention in architecture. His reputation grew in the USA following the critical reception of his design for the Finnish Pavilion at the 1939 New York World's Fair, described by Frank Lloyd Wright as a "work of genius". It could be said that Aalto's interntional reputation was sealed with his inclusion in the second edition of Sigfried Giedion's influential book on Modernist architecture, Space, Time and Architecture: The growth of a new tradition (1949), in which Aalto received more attention than any other Modernist architect, including Le Corbusier. In his analysis of Aalto, Giedion gave primacy to qualities that depart from direct functionality, such as mood, atmosphere, intensity of life and even 'national characteristics', declaring that "Finland is with Aalto wherever he goes".

His increased fame led to offers and commissions outside Finland. In 1941 he accepted an invitation as a visiting professor to MIT, in USA. This was during the Second World War, and he involved his students in designing low-cost, small-scale housing for the reconstruction of war-torn Finland. While teaching at MIT, Aalto also designed the student dormitory, Baker House, completed in 1948. This building was the first building of Aalto's redbrick period. Originally used in Baker House to signify the Ivy league university tradition, on his return to Finland Aalto used it in a number of key buildings, in particular several of the buildings in the new Helsinki University of Technology campus, which began from 1950, Säynatsalo Town Hall (1952), Helsinki Pensions Institute (1954), Helsinki House of Culture (1958), as well as his own summer house, the so-called Experimental House in Muuratsalo (1957).

The early 1960s and 1970s (up until his death in 1976) was marked by key works in Helsinki, in particular the huge town plan for the void in centre of Helsinki adjacent to Töölö Bay and the vast railway yards, and marked on the edges by significant buildings such as the National Museum and the main railway station, both by Eliel Saarinen. In his town plan Aalto proposed a line of separate marble-clad buildings fronting the bay which would house various cultural institutes including a concert hall, opera, museum of architecture and headquarters for the Finnish Academy. The scheme also extended into the Kamppi district with a series of tall office blocks. Aalto first presented his scheme in 1961, but it went through various modifications during the early 1960s. Only two fragements of the overall plan were ever realised, the Finlandia Hall concert hall (1976) fronting Töölö Bay and an office building in the Kamppi district for the Helsinki Electricity Company (1975). The Miesian form language of geometric grids employed in the buildings was also used by Aalto for other sites in Helsinki, including the Enso-Gutzeit building (1962), the Academic Bookstore (1962) and the SYP Bank building (1969).

Awards

Aalto's awards included the Royal Gold Medal for Architecture from the Royal Institute of British Architects (1957) and the Gold Medal from the American Institute of Architects (1963).

Works

Aalto's career spans the changes in style from (Nordic Classicism) to purist International Style Modernism to a more personal, synthetic and idiosyncratic Modernism. Aalto's wide field of design activity ranges from the large scale of city planning and architecture to interior design, furniture and glassware design and painting. It has been estimated that during his entire career Aalto designed over 500 individual buildings, approximately 300 of which were built, the vast majority of which are in Finland. He also has a few buildings in the USA, Germany, Italy, and France.[4]

Aalto claimed that his paintings were not made as individual artworks but as part of his process of architectural design, and many of his small-scale "sculptural" experiments with wood led to later larger architectural details and forms. These experiments also led to a number of patents: for example, he invented a new form of laminated bent-plywood furniture in 1932. His experimental method had been influenced by his meetings with various members of the Bauhaus design school, especially László Moholy-Nagy, whom he first met in 1930. Aalto's furniture was exhibited in London in 1935, to great critical acclaim, and to cope with the consumer demand Aalto, together with his wife Aino, Maire Gullichsen and Nils-Gustav Hahl founded the company Artek that same year. Aalto glassware (Aino as well as Alvar) is manufactured by Iittala.

Significant buildings

Furniture and glassware

Chairs
  • 1932: Paimio Chair [5]
  • 1933: Three-legged stacking Stool 60 [6]
  • 1933: Four-legged Stool E60 [7]
  • 1935-6: Armchair 404 (a/k/a/ Zebra Tank Chair) [8]
  • 1939: Armchair 406 [9]
Lamps
  • 1954: Floor lamp A805 [10]
  • 1959: Floor lamp A810 [11]
Vases

Images

Villa Mairea in Noormarkku.

Detail of Baker House facade on the Charles River.

Helsinki, Finland - University of Technology - Auditorium.

House of Culture, Helsinki.

Enso-Gutzeit HQ, Helsinki.

Finlandia Hall.

The Aalto-Theater opera house in Essen, Germany.

Tea cart.

Quotes

  • "God created paper for the purpose of drawing architecture on it. Everything else is at least for me an abuse of paper." Alvar Aalto, Sketches, 1978, 104.
  • "We should work for simple, good, undecorated things" and he continues, "but things which are in harmony with the human being and organically suited to the little man in the street." Alvar Aalto, speech in London 1957.

Memorials

Alvar Aalto portrayed on a stamp published in 1976.

Aalto has been commemorated in a number of ways:

  • Alvar Aalto is the eponym of the Alvar Aalto Medal, now considered one of world architecture’s most prestigious awards.
  • Aalto was featured in the 50 mk note in the last series of the Finnish markka (before its replacement by the Euro in 2002).
  • 1998 marked the centenary anniversary of Aalto's birth. The occasion was marked in Finland not only by several books and exhibitions but also by the promotion of specially-bottled red and white Aalto Wine, and a specially-designed cup-cake.
  • In the year of his death, 1976, Aalto was commomorated on a Finnish postage stamp.
  • Aalto University, a new Finnish university (an amalgamation of Helsinki University of Technology, Helsinki School of Economics and TaiK) will be established in 2010, is named after Alvar Aalto.

See also

Bibliography

Göran Schildt

Göran Schildt has written and edited many books on Aalto, the most well-known being the three-volume biography, usually referred to as the definitive biography on Aalto.

  • Alvar Aalto. The Early Years Rizzoli: New York, 1984.
  • Alvar Aalto. The Decisive Years Rizzoli: New York, 1987.
  • Alvar Aalto. The Mature Years Rizzoli: New York, 1991.
  • The Architectural Drawings of Alvar Aalto, 1917-1939, in eleven volumes. Prepared by the Alvar Aalto Archive in collaboration with the Museum of Finnish Architecture, Helsinki, and the Alvar Aalto Museum, Jyväskylä; with introduction and project descriptions by Göran Schildt. Garland Publishing: New York, 1994.
  • Alvar Aalto in His Own Words. Rizzoli: New York, 1998.
  • Alvar Aalto: The Complete Catalogue of Architecture, Design and Art. Rizzoli: New York, 1994.

Other books

  • Alvar Aalto Architect, Alvar Aalto Academy: Helsinki. A 28-part series of books chronicling significant Aalto works. Volumes already published:
    • Volume 7: Sunila.
    • Volume 9: Villa Mairea.
    • Volume 13: University of Technology, Otaniemi.
    • Volume 20: Maison Carré.
  • Alvar Aalto Arkkitehti / Architect 1898-1976, Rakennustieto / Alvar Aalto Foundation: Helsinki, 1999.
  • Fleig, Karl Alvar Aalto, Editorial Gustavo Gili: Barcelona, 1992.
  • Porphyrios, Demetri Sources of Modern Eclecticism, Academy Editions: London, 1982.
  • Pallasmaa, Juhani (Ed.) Alvar Aalto Furniture, Museum of Finnish Architecture. Helsinki 1984.
  • Pelkonen, Eeva-Liisa Alvar Aalto: Architecture, Modernity, and Geopolitics. Yale Architecture Press: New York, 2009.
  • Reed, Peter (Ed.) Alvar Aalto: between humanism and materialism. Museum of Modern Art/H.N. Abrams. New York, 1998.
  • Ruusuvuori, Aarno (Ed.) Alvar Aalto 1898-1976. Museum of Finnish Architecture: Helsinki 1998
  • Jormakka, Kari; Gargus, Jacqueline; Graf, Douglas The Use and Abuse of Paper. Essays on Alvar Aalto. Datutop 20: Tampere 1999.
  • Connah, Roger Aaltomania - Readings against Aalto? Building Information Ltd: Helsinki, 2000.
  • Weston, Richard Alvar Aalto. Phaidon: London, 1995.

Aalto research

  • The extensive archives of Alvar Aalto are nowadays kept at the Alvar Aalto Museum, Jyväskylä, Finland. Material is also available from the former offices of Aalto, at Tiilimäki 20, Helsinki, nowadays the headquarters of the Alvar Aalto Foundation.
  • From 1995 until 2009 the Alvar Aalto Museum and Aalto Academy published a journal twice a year, Ptah, which was devoted not only to Aalto scholarship but also to architecture generally as well as theory, design and art. However, from 2009 onwards Ptah is to be published as a once-a-year monograph.
  • One of the most extensive collections of references on Alvar Aalto in the U.S. can be found at the University of Oregon.

References

  1. ^ "Architecture.sk."
  2. ^ Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 1
  3. ^ "Aalto, Alvar." Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 December 2006.
  4. ^ Göran Schildt, Alvar Aalto. A life's work: Architecture, Design and Art. Otava, Helsinki, 1994
  5. ^ Artek
  6. ^ Artek
  7. ^ Artek
  8. ^ Artek
  9. ^ Artek
  10. ^ Artek
  11. ^ Artek

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