Western Philosophy
20th-century philosophy |
Antonio Gramsci
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Name
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Birth
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January 23, 1891 (Ales, Sardinia)
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Death
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April 27, 1937 (Rome,
Italy)
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School/tradition
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Marxism
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Main interests
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Politics, Ideology, Culture
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Notable ideas
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Hegemony, Organic Intellectual, War of Position
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Influences
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Karl Marx, Georges Sorel, Benedetto Croce, Antonio Labriola, Niccolò Machiavelli
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Influenced
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Louis Althusser, Ernesto Laclau,
Paulo Freire, Edward Said, Noam Chomsky, Judith Butler, Alain de Benoist, Cornel West
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Antonio Gramsci (IPA: ['ɡramʃi])
(January 22, 1891 – April 27,
1937) was an Italian writer,
politician and political theorist. A
founding member and onetime leader of the Communist Party of Italy, he was
imprisoned by Mussolini's Fascist regime. His
writings are heavily concerned with the analysis of culture and political leadership and he is notable as a highly original thinker within the Marxist
tradition. He is renowned for his concept of cultural
hegemony as a means of maintaining the state in a capitalist society.
Life
Early life
Gramsci was born in Ales, Italy, on the island of
Sardinia. He was the fourth of seven sons of Francesco Gramsci, a low-level official. His
father's family was Arbëreshë and the family name was probably related to Gramsh, an Albanian town. Francesco's financial difficulties and troubles with
the police forced the family to move about through several villages in Sardinia until they finally settled in Ghilarza.
In 1898 Francesco was convicted of embezzlement and
imprisoned, reducing his family to destitution and forcing the young Antonio to abandon his schooling and work at various casual
jobs until his father's release in 1904. The boy suffered from health problems: a malformation of
the spine owing to a childhood accident left him hunch-backed and underdeveloped, while he was also plagued by various internal
disorders throughout his life.
Gramsci completed secondary school in Cagliari, where he lodged with his elder brother
Gennaro, a former soldier whose time on the mainland had made him a militant socialist.
However, Gramsci's sympathies at the time did not lie with socialism, but rather with the grievances of impoverished Sardinian
peasants and miners, who saw their neglect as a result of the privileges enjoyed by the rapidly industrialising North and who tended to turn to Sardinian nationalism as a
response.
Turin
A brilliant student, in 1911 Gramsci won a scholarship that allowed him to study at the
University of Turin, sitting the exam at the same time as future cohort
Palmiro Togliatti. At Turin, he read
literature and took a keen interest in linguistics.
Gramsci found the city at the time going through a process of industrialization, with
the Fiat and Lancia factories recruiting workers from poorer
regions. Trade unions became established, and the first industrial social conflicts started to emerge. Gramsci had a close
involvement with these developments, frequenting socialist circles as well as associating with Sardinian emigrants, which gave
him continuity with his native culture. His worldview shaped by both his earlier experiences in Sardinia and his environment on
the mainland, Gramsci joined the Italian Socialist Party in late
1913.
Despite showing talent for his studies, Gramsci's financial problems and poor health, as well as his growing political
commitment, forced him to abandon his education in early 1915. By this time, he had acquired an
extensive knowledge of history and philosophy. At
university, he had come into contact with the thought of Antonio Labriola, Rodolfo Mondolfo, Giovanni Gentile and, most importantly,
Benedetto Croce, possibly the most widely respected Italian intellectual of his day.
Such thinkers espoused a brand of Hegelian Marxism to which Labriola had given the name "philosophy of praxis".
Though Gramsci would later use this phrase to escape the prison censors, his relationship toward this current of thought was
ambiguous throughout his career.
From 1914 onward Gramsci's writings for socialist newspapers such as Il Grido del Popolo earned him a reputation as a notable journalist,
and in 1916 he became co-editor of the Piedmont edition of
Avanti!, the Socialist Party official organ. An articulate and
prolific writer of political theory, Gramsci proved a formidable commentator, writing on all aspects of Turin's social and
political life.
Gramsci was, at this time, also involved in the education and organisation of Turin workers: he spoke in public for the first
time in 1916 and gave talks on topics such as Romain
Rolland, the French Revolution, the Paris
Commune and the emancipation of women. In the wake of the arrest of Socialist Party
leaders that followed the revolutionary riots of August 1917, Gramsci became one of Turin's leading
socialists when he was both elected to the party's Provisional Committee and made editor of Il Grido del Popolo.
In April 1919 with Togliatti, Angelo Tasca and
Umberto Terracini Gramsci set up the weekly newspaper L'Ordine
Nuovo. In October of the same year, despite being divided into various hostile factions, the Socialist Party moved by
a large majority to join the Third International. The L'Ordine Nuovo group was seen by
Lenin as closest in orientation to the Bolsheviks, and
it received his backing against the anti-parliamentary programme of the extreme
left Amadeo Bordiga.
Amongst the various tactical debates that took place within the party, Gramsci's group was mainly distinguished by its
advocacy of workers' councils, which had come into existence in Turin spontaneously
during the large strikes of 1919 and 1920. For Gramsci these
councils were the proper means of enabling workers to take control of the task of organising production. Although he believed his
position at this time to be in keeping with Lenin's policy of "All power to the Soviets", his stance was attacked by Bordiga for
betraying a syndicalist tendency influenced by the thought of Georges Sorel and Daniel DeLeon. By the time of the defeat of the
Turin workers in spring 1920, Gramsci was almost alone in his defence of the councils.
In the PCI
The failure of the workers' councils to develop into a national movement led Gramsci to believe that a Communist Party in the
Leninist sense was needed. The group around L'Ordine Nuovo declaimed incessantly against
the PSI's centrist leadership and ultimately allied with Bordiga's far larger "abstentionist"
faction. On January 21, 1921, in the town of Livorno, the Communist Party of Italy (Partito Comunista
d'Italia - PCI) was founded. Gramsci supported against Bordiga the
Arditi del Popolo, a militant anti-fascist group which struggled against the
Blackshirts.
Gramsci would be a leader of the party from its inception but was subordinate to Bordiga, whose emphasis on discipline,
centralism and purity of principles dominated the party's programme until the latter lost the leadership in 1924.
In 1922 Gramsci travelled to Russia as a representative of the new party. Here, he met his
wife, Julia Schucht, a young violinist with whom Gramsci had two sons. [1]
The Russian mission coincided with the advent of Fascism in Italy, and Gramsci returned with
instructions to foster, against the wishes of the PCI leadership, a united front of leftist parties against fascism. Such a front
would ideally have had the PCI at its centre, through which Moscow would have controlled all the
leftist forces, but others disputed this potential supremacy: socialists did have a certain tradition in Italy too, while the
communist party seemed relatively young and too radical. Many believed that an eventual coalition led by communists would have
functioned too remotely from political debate, and thus would have run the risk of isolation.
In late 1922 and early 1923, Mussolini's government embarked on a campaign of repression against the opposition parties,
arresting most of the PCI leadership, including Bordiga. At the end of 1923, Gramsci travelled from
Moscow to Vienna, where he tried to revive a party torn by factional strife.
In 1924 Gramsci, now recognised as head of the PCI, gained election as a deputy for the
Veneto. He started organising the launch of the official newspaper of the party, called
L'Unità (Unity), living in Rome while his family stayed in
Moscow. At its Lyons Congress in January 1926, Gramsci's theses calling for a united front to
restore democracy to Italy were adopted by the party.
In 1926 Stalin's manoeuvres inside the Bolshevik party moved Gramsci to write a letter to the Comintern, in which
he deplored opposition led by Trotsky, but also underlined some presumed faults of the
leader. Togliatti, in Moscow as a representative of the party, received the letter, opened it, read it, and decided not to
deliver it. This caused a difficult conflict between Gramsci and Togliatti which they never completely resolved.
Imprisonment
Grave of Gramsci in Rome.
On November 9, 1926 the Fascist government enacted a new wave of emergency laws, taking as
a pretext an alleged attempt on Mussolini's life that had occurred several days earlier. The fascist police arrested Gramsci,
despite his parliamentary immunity, and brought him to Regina Coeli, the famous Roman prison. At his trial, Gramsci's prosecutor
famously stated, "For twenty years we must stop this brain from functioning".[1] He received an immediate sentence of 5 years in
confinement (on the remote island of Ustica); the
following year he received a sentence of 20 years of prison (in Turi, near Bari). His condition
caused him to suffer from constantly declining health, and he received an individual cell and little assistance. In
1932, a project for exchanging political prisoners
(including Gramsci) between Italy and the Soviet Union failed. In 1934 his health deteriorated severely and he gained conditional freedom, after having already visited some
hospitals in Civitavecchia, Formia and Rome. He died in
Rome at the age of 46, shortly after being released from prison; he is buried in the Protestant Cemetery there.
Thought
Gramsci is seen by many as one of the most important Marxist thinkers of the twentieth century, in particular as a key thinker
in the development of Western Marxism. He wrote more than 30 notebooks and 3000 pages of
history and analysis during his imprisonment. These writings, known as the Prison
Notebooks, contain Gramsci's tracing of Italian history and nationalism, as well as some ideas in Marxist theory,
critical theory and educational theory associated with his name, such as:
Hegemony
Hegemony was a concept previously used by Marxists such as Lenin to indicate the political leadership of the working-class in
a democratic revolution, but developed by Gramsci into an acute analysis to explain why the 'inevitable' socialist revolution predicted by orthodox Marxism had not occurred by the
early 20th century. Capitalism, it seemed, was even more entrenched than ever. Capitalism,
Gramsci suggested, maintained control not just through violence and political and economic coercion, but also ideologically, through a hegemonic culture in which the values of the bourgeoisie became
the 'common sense' values of all. Thus a consensus culture developed in which people in the
working-class identified their own good with the good of the bourgeoisie, and helped to
maintain the status quo rather than revolting.
The working class needed to develop a culture of its own, which would overthrow the notion that bourgeois values represented
'natural' or 'normal' values for society, and would attract the oppressed and intellectual classes to the cause of the
proletariat. Lenin held that culture was 'ancillary' to political objectives but for Gramsci it was fundamental to the attainment
of power that cultural hegemony was first achieved. In Gramsci’s view, any class that wishes to dominate in modern conditions has
to move beyond its own narrow ‘economic-corporate’ interests, to exert intellectual and moral leadership, and to make alliances
and compromises with a variety of forces. Gramsci calls this union of social forces a ‘historic bloc’, taking a term from
Georges Sorel. This bloc forms the basis of consent to a certain social order, which
produces and re-produces the hegemony of the dominant class through a nexus of institutions,
social relations and ideas.
Gramsci stated that, in the West, bourgeois cultural values were tied to Christianity,
and therefore much of his polemic against hegemonic culture is aimed at religious norms and values. He was impressed by the power
Roman Catholicism had over men's minds and the care the Church had taken to
prevent an excessive gap developing between the religion of the learned and that of the less educated. Gramsci believed that it
was Marxism's task to marry the purely intellectual critique of religion found in Renaissance humanism to the elements of the Reformation that had appealed to the masses. For Gramsci, Marxism could supersede religion only
if it met people's spiritual needs, and to do so people would have to recognise it as an expression of their own experience.
Intellectuals and Education
Gramsci gave much thought to the question of the role of intellectuals in society.
Famously, he stated that all men are intellectuals, in that all have intellectual and rational faculties, but not all men have
the social function of intellectuals. He claimed that modern intellectuals were not simply talkers, but directors and organisers
who helped build society and produce hegemony by means of ideological apparatuses such as education and the media. Furthermore, he distinguished between a
'traditional' intelligentsia which sees itself (wrongly) as a class apart from society,
and the thinking groups which every class produces from its own ranks 'organically'. Such 'organic' intellectuals do not simply
describe social life in accordance with scientific rules, but rather articulate, through the language of culture, the feelings and experiences which the masses
could not express for themselves. The need to create a working-class culture relates to Gramsci's call for a kind of education
that could develop working-class intellectuals, who would not simply introduce Marxist ideology from without the proletariat, but
rather renovate and make critical of the status quo the already existing intellectual activity of the masses. His ideas
about an education system for this purpose correspond with the notion of critical
pedagogy and popular education as theorized and practised in later decades by
Paulo Freire in Brazil. For this reason, partisans of adult
and popular education consider Gramsci an important voice to this day.
State and Civil Society
Gramsci’s theory of hegemony is tied to his conception of the capitalist state, which he claims
rules through force plus consent. The state is not to be understood in the narrow sense of the government; instead, Gramsci divides it between 'political society', which is the arena of political
institutions and legal constitutional control, and 'civil society', which is
commonly seen as the 'private' or 'non-state' sphere, including the economy. The former
is the realm of force and the latter of consent. He stresses, however, that the division is purely conceptual and that the two,
in reality, often overlap.
Gramsci claims that under modern capitalism, the bourgeoisie can maintain its economic
control by allowing certain demands made by trade unions and mass political parties within civil society to be met by the political sphere. Thus, the bourgeoisie engages
in 'passive revolution' by going beyond its immediate economic interests and allowing the forms of its hegemony to change.
Gramsci posits that movements such as reformism and fascism,
as well as the 'scientific management' and assembly line methods of Frederick Taylor and
Henry Ford respectively, are examples of this.
Drawing from Machiavelli, he argues that 'The Modern Prince' - the revolutionary
party - is the force that will allow the working-class to develop organic intellectuals and an alternative hegemony within civil
society. For Gramsci, the complex nature of modern civil society means that the only tactic capable of undermining bourgeois
hegemony and leading to socialism is a 'war of position' (analogous to trench warfare); this war of position would then give way to a 'war of movement' (or frontal attack).
Gramsci saw 'war of movement' as being exemplified by the storming of the Winter Palace
during the Russian Revolution.
Despite his claim that the lines between the two may be blurred, Gramsci rejects the state-worship that results from
identifying political society with civil society, as was done by the Jacobins and
Fascists. He believes the proletariat's historical task is to create a 'regulated society' and
defines the 'withering away of the state' as the full development of civil society's
ability to regulate itself.
Historicism
Gramsci, like the early Marx, was an emphatic proponent of historicism. In Gramsci's view, all meaning derives from the relation between human practical activity (or
'praxis') and the "objective" historical and social processes of which it is a part.
Ideas cannot be understood outside their social and historical context, apart from their function and origin. The concepts by
which we organise our knowledge of the world do not derive primarily from our relation to things, but rather from the social
relations between the users of those concepts. Resultantly, there is no such thing as an unchanging "human nature", but only an idea of such which varies historically. Furthermore, philosophy and science do not "reflect" a reality independent of man, but
rather are only "true" in that they express the real developmental trend of a given historical situation. The majority of
Marxists held the common sense view that truth was truth no matter when and where it is known, and that scientific knowledge
(which included Marxism) accumulates historically as the advance of truth in this everyday sense, and therefore did not belong to
the illusory realm of the superstructure. For Gramsci, however, Marxism was "true" in the
socially pragmatic sense, in that by articulating the class consciousness of the
proletariat, it expressed the "truth" of its times better than any other theory. This
anti-scientistic and anti-positivist stance was indebted
to the influence of Benedetto Croce. However, it should be underlined that Gramsci's was an "absolute historicism" that broke
with the Hegelian and idealist tenor of Croce's thinking and its tendency to secure a metaphysical synthesis in historical
"destiny". Though Gramsci repudiates the charge, his historical account of truth has been criticised as a form of
relativism.
In a famous pre-prison article entitled "The Revolution against Das Kapital"
[2], Gramsci claimed that the October Revolution in Russia had
invalidated the idea that socialist revolution had to await the full development of capitalist forces of production. This reflected his view that Marxism was not a deterministic philosophy. The principle of the causal "primacy" of the forces of production, he held, was a misconception of Marxism. Both economic changes and cultural
changes are expressions of a "basic historical process", and it is difficult to say which sphere has primacy over the other. The
fatalistic belief, widespread within the workers’
movement in its earliest years, that it would inevitably triumph due to "historical laws", was, in Gramsci's view, a
product of the historical circumstances of an oppressed class restricted mainly to defensive action, and was to be abandoned as a
hindrance once the working-class became able to take the initiative. Because Marxism is a "philosophy of praxis", it cannot rely
on unseen "historical laws" as the agents of social change. History is defined by human praxis and therefore includes human will.
Nonetheless, will-power cannot achieve anything it likes in any given situation: when the consciousness of the working-class
reaches the stage of development necessary for action, historical circumstances will be encountered which cannot be arbitrarily
altered. It is not, however, predetermined by historical inevitability as to which of several possible developments will take
place as a result.
His critique of economism also extended to that practiced by the syndicalists of the Italian trade unions. He believed that
many trade unionists had settled for a reformist, gradualist approach in that they had refused to struggle on the political front
in addition to the economic front. While Gramsci envisioned the trade unions as one organ of a counter-hegemonic force in
capitalist society, the trade union leaders simply saw these organizations as a means to improve conditions within the existing
structure. Gramsci referred to the views of these trade unionists as "vulgar economism," which he equated to covert reformism and
even liberalism.
Critique of Materialism
By virtue of his belief that human history and collective praxis determine
whether any philosophical question is meaningful or not, Gramsci’s views run contrary to the metaphysical materialism and 'copy' theory of perception advanced by Engels and Lenin, though he does not
explicitly state this. For Gramsci, Marxism does not deal with a reality which exists in and for itself, independent of humanity.
The concept of an objective universe outside of human history and human praxis
was, in his view, analogous to belief in God; there could be no objectivity, but
only a universal intersubjectivity to be established in a future communist society.
Natural history was thus only meaningful in relation to human history. On his view
philosophical materialism, like primitive common sense, resulted from a lack of critical thought, and could not, as Lenin
[3]
claimed, be said to oppose religious superstition. Despite this, Gramsci resigned himself
to the existence of this arguably cruder form of Marxism: the proletariat’s status as a dependent class meant that Marxism, as
its philosophy, could often only be expressed in the form of popular superstition and common sense. Nonetheless, it was necessary
to effectively challenge the ideologies of the educated classes, and to do so Marxists must present their philosophy in a more
sophisticated guise, and attempt to genuinely understand their opponents’ views.
Influence
Although Gramsci's thought emanates from the organized left, he has also become an important figure in current academic
discussions within cultural studies and critical
theory. Political theorists from the center and the right have also found insight in his concepts; his idea of
hegemony, for example, has become widely cited. His influence is particularly strong in
contemporary political science, on the subject of the prevalence of neoliberal thinking among political elites, in the form of Neo-gramscianism. His work also heavily influenced intellectual discourse on popular culture and scholarly popular culture studies
in whom many have found the potential for political or ideological resistance to dominant government and business interests.
His critics charge him with fostering a notion of power struggle through ideas. They find the Gramscian approach to
philosophical analysis, reflected in current academic controversies, to be in conflict with open-ended, liberal inquiry grounded
in apolitical readings of the classics of Western culture. To credit or blame Gramsci for the travails of current academic
politics is an odd turn of history, since Gramsci himself was never an academic, and was in fact deeply intellectually engaged
with Italian culture, history, and current liberal thought.
As a socialist, Gramsci's legacy has been disputed. Togliatti, who led the Party (renamed as PCI) after World War II and whose gradualist approach was
a forerunner to Eurocommunism, claimed that the PCI's practices during this period were
congruent with Gramscian thought. Others, however, have argued that Gramsci was a Left
Communist, who would have been expelled from his Party if prison had not prevented him from regular contact with
Moscow during the leadership of Stalin.
Influences on Gramsci's thought
- Niccolò Machiavelli — 16th century Italian writer who greatly influenced
Gramsci's theory of the state.
- Karl Marx — philosopher, historian, economist and founder of Marxism.
- Antonio Labriola — Italy's first notable Marxist theorist, believed Marxism's main
feature was the nexus it established between history and philosophy.
- Georges Sorel — French syndicalist writer who rejected the inevitability of historical
progress.
- Vilfredo Pareto — Italian economist and sociologist, known for his theory on mass
and elite interaction.
- Henri Bergson — French irrationalist philosopher and theorist of voluntarism.
- Benedetto Croce — Italian liberal, anti-Marxist and idealist philosopher whose
thought Gramsci subjected to careful and thorough critique...
Later thinkers influenced by Gramsci
See also
Endnotes
- ^ Antonio Gramsci, Selections from
the Prison Notebooks, Lawrence and Wishart, 1971, ISBN 0-85315-280-2, p.lxxxix.
- ^ http://www.guardian.co.uk/Scotland/Story/0,,392958,00.html
Sources
- Bottomore,
Tom (1992). The Dictionary of Marxist Thought. Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 0631180826.
- Gramsci, Antonio (1971). Selections from the
Prison Notebooks. International Publishers. ISBN 071780397X.
- Jay, Martin (1986).
Marxism and Totality: The Adventures of a Concept from Lukacs to Habermas. University of California Press. ISBN
0520057422.
- Joll, James (1977).
Antonio Gramsci. Viking Press. ISBN 0670129429.
- Kolakowski,
Leszek (1981). Main Currents of Marxism, Vol. III: The Breakdown. Oxford University Press. ISBN
0192851098.
- Boggs, Carl (1984).
The Two Revolutions: Gramsci and the Dilemmas of Western Marxism. South End Press. ISBN 0896082261.
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