Stoicism was most influential philosophical school not only
among the Romans. It was also the foremost philosophy among the
Greek educated elite in the Hellenistic world, which stretched from
mainland Greece to Syria and Egypt. The Romans conquered the whole
of this world. The Roman educated elite were deeply influenced by
Hellenistic culture and looked up to it. Their education was in
Greek as well as Latin and they were fluent in Greek. The pinnacle
of their education was a stay in Greece to study Greek philosophy.
Therefore, it is not surprising that stoicism was taken up by many
members of the Roman elite. Epicureanism was another school Greek
philosophy which was around in the Hellenistic world. It gained
popularity among the Roman elite as well, though not as much as
stoicism.
Roman educated men, just like Greek educated men, were attracted
stoicism because it was a powerful philosophy. It advocated the
pursuit of happiness, freedom form suffering and a righteous life,
maintained that ethics was the main focus of human knowledge and
aimed at improving the individual's ethical and moral well-being.
In this respect it make up for the lack of ethical values in both
Greek and Roman religion.
As Bertrand Russell put it, in stoicism, "virtue consists in a
will that is in agreement with Nature … [and] "to be free from
anger, envy, and jealousy" in interpersonal relationships. Stoicism
also aimed being free from passion. However, the word passion had a
different meaning back then. It meant anguish or suffering which
came from passively reacting to external events. Wisdom was
required to be free from suffering, to attain eupatheia; that is,
feelings that result from correct judgment in the same way as
passions (suffering) result from incorrect judgment. Freedom for
suffering came through apatheia or peace of mind (literally,
'without passion'). To the ancient Greeks apatheia meant being
objective or having "clear judgment" and the maintenance of
equanimity in the face of life's highs and lows. Therefore,
apatheia required the use of reason and reason was to be developed
through the exercise of logic. However, reason went beyond logic.
It was not just the exercise of the intellect as it is understood
today. Reason also meant understanding the processes of nature. To
the stoics living according to reason meant living in harmony with
the divine order of the universe and in oneness with nature, which
were the source of reason in human beings and apatheia (peace of
mind and freedom for suffering) and happiness. Unhappiness and evil
are the results of human ignorance of the reason in nature. Being
unkind or acting unethically were reflections of this
ignorance.
The stoics also believed in four cardinal virtues: wisdom,
courage, justice, and temperance. More generally, virtue meant
amend one's will to be in agreement, harmony and oneness with
nature. In this way one exercises one's will in autonomy ether than
reacting passively to external events. As Epictetus put it, a
virtuous man is "sick and yet happy, in peril and yet happy, dying
and yet happy, in exile and happy, in disgrace and happy." A man of
virtue makes honourable moral choices. Stoicism was a philosophy of
life which was to be actively pursued through of constant practice.
Its spiritual practices comprised logic, Socratic dialog and
self-dialog, contemplation of death, training attention to remain
in the present moment (that is, meditation), and daily reflection
on everyday problems and possible solutions.
Stoicism was cosmopolitanism and egalitarian. All human beings
were manifestations of the universal spirit.
There should be brotherly love and mutual help. Wealth and
social ranks did not matter and all human beings were equal.