Collections of Jewish writings that date from the Second Temple period and shortly thereafter, which were not included in the Jewish Bible canon. The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, which include various types of literature and express differing viewpoints, were originally written in a number of different languages---Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek---and in different places, such as Erets Israel and Egypt. Some of them were preserved because of the sanctity attached to them in various Christian churches, where they were considered as part of the Bible. The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha are essential to the study of Judaism in the Second Temple period and for understanding the sources of rabbinic Judaism and the beginnings of Christianity.
The division of these writings into two major groups, known as Apocrypha ("hidden" books) and Pseudepigrapha (books ascribed to a person other than their actual author), results from the way in which these books were preserved and from their standing within the different churches. The apocryphal books are those included in the Greek translation of the Bible, the Septuagint, and in Jerome's Latin translation, the Vulgate, which were sanctified in the canon of the Greek Orthodox and the Catholic Churches. These apocryphal books include Tobit, Judith, Baruch, the Epistle of Jeremiah, the Wisdom of Ben Sira (Sirach or Ecclesiasticus), the Wisdom of Solomon, II and II Maccabees, Esdras, and additions to Esther and Daniel. The pseudepigraphal books were preserved by different churches, but were not included in the Christian biblical canon. There is no generally agreed list of the pseudepigraphal works, which include far more books than the Apocrypha. Many pseudepigraphal works have Christian interpolations, some composed by Christians to modify Jewish material of the Second Temple era. The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha were rejected by the sages, and are referred to in the Talmud as the Sefarim Ḥitsonim ("external books").
The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha were preserved not only in Greek and Latin, but also in the languages of various Churches, such as Ethiopic, Armenian, Syriac, and Old Slavonic. Some of these works have survived in their original language---a few in Greek and one (Ben Sira or Ecclesiasticus) in Hebrew, the latter's original version having been discovered at the end of the 19th century in the Cairo Genizah. Remnants of other such works were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, in Hebrew and Aramaic, at Qumran.
The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha include various types of literature, most of them paralleling the Bible. There are historical works of great reliability, works which claim to be historical, and fictional works with a didactic and dramatic content; Wisdom Literature and works of a philosophical nature; psalms and revelations, prophecies and works which expand upon the biblical accounts of certain individuals or which retell biblical stories while offering a different emphasis. Some of the apocryphal writings claim to complete books included in the Bible. These extracanonical works are not of a uniform character, representing various literary genres.
Among the historical works, I Maccabees is extremely reliable as an historical source and was originally written in Hebrew. It recounts the history of the Hasmoneans from the ascent of Antiochus Epiphanes to the Syrian throne until the death of Simon the Hasmonean. II Maccabees, an abridgment of a larger work, concentrates on the campaigns fought by Judah Maccabee, also extolling legendary martyrs (as in the tale of Hannah and her seven sons). Originally written in Greek, it is less reliable than I Maccabees as an historical source. III Maccabees, a pseudepigraphical work, deals not with the history of the Hasmoneans but with the decrees which Ptolemy, the ruler of Egypt, enacted against the Jews of Alexandria. It is of little historical value and should be regarded as a religious novel. From that point of view, it resembles the letter of Aristeas, which tells how Greek (Septuagint) translation of the Bible came into being. This legendary work, written in Egypt, is of an apologetic nature and was intended to show the greatness of the Jewish religion.
Some portions of the Wisdom Literature are attributed to Solomon. The Wisdom of Solomon, which forms part of the Apocrypha, was written in Greek (evidently in Alexandria) between the first century BCE and the first centurt CE, and was influenced by Hellenistic Jewish philosophy. Ben Sira was written in Hebrew (evidently in Jerusalem) around 180 BCE; translated into Greek by the author's grandson, it is included in the Septuagint. It includes proverbs and allegories stylistically resembling the Book of Proverbs, extols wisdom and describes it in anthropomorphic terms. Wisdom Literature, influenced by the style and ideas of Greek philosophy, is also to be found in the Pseudepigrapha. This influence is especially apparent in IV Maccabees, which was written in Greek and which combines the principles of Judaism with Greek philosophical ideas, especially those of the Stoics .
Many apocryphal or pseudepigraphical works retell bible stories. The Book of Jubilees, which describes the Divine revelations to Moses on Sinai, repeats the Scriptural account from Creation until the first chapters of Exodus, with certain omissions, changes, and additions. Jubilees was originally written in Hebrew, fragments having been discovered at Qumran, but the entire book survives only in Ethiopic and Latin. "Biblical Antiquities"---mistakenly attributed to Philo and therefore known as Pseudo-Philo---repeats the stories of the Bible from Adam to David. The Book of Adam and Eve deals primarily with episodes involving the first couple after their banishment from the Garden of Eden. Asenath, originally written in Greek, is a long work recounting Joseph's marriage to Asenath, daughter of Potiphera, which is mentioned in Genesis. The Epistle of Jeremiah and the works attributed to Baruch amplify the biblical text of Jeremiah. The Ascension of Isaiah, which contains numerous Christian interpolations, describes the prophet's flight from Jerusalem and his murder by Manasseh. Two books of the Apocrypha known as I and II Esdras modify or embroider episodes in II Chronicles, the Book of Ezra, and parts of Nehemiah. A special place in the Pseudepigrapha is occupied by the various "testaments" which recount the purported last words of biblical heroes on their death beds, also including moral and didactic lessons. The major work in this genre is the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs.
The Apocrypha also includes additions to the canonical text of several biblical books. Thus, the Greek Additions to the Book of Esther (also known as The Rest of Esther) supply a number of apologetic chapters that give the book a religious dimension and expand its literary content. Among the Additions to the Book of Daniel are two works deserving a place on their own: the History of Susanna or Susanna and the Elders, which describes the attempt made by two lustful old men to incriminate the virtuous Susanna and her rescue by the wise young Daniel; and Bel and the Dragon, a mocking refutation of idolatry. Others include the Song of the Three Holy Children, ascribed to Daniel's friends, who were saved from the fiery furnace.
The apocryphal books of Tobit and Judith resemble Susanna, being religious fiction of a didactic character. Tobit describes the ideal home life and adventures of a righteous Israelite, carried away to exile in Nineveh, whom the angel Raphael supports in his fight with Asmodeus. The second book is also a novella, telling the heroic story of Judith, a beautiful and patriotic woman, who manages to behead Nebuchadnezzar's general, Holofernes, thereby saving Israel from the foreign menace. Both works are ancient, dating back to the late Persian era (fourth cent. BCE) or at least to the early Hasmonean period (c. 160 BCE).
Many hymns and prayers are scattered among the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha. Some of these are collections which strongly resemble the Book of Psalms. A notable example, the Psalms of Solomon, appears originally to have been written in Hebrew. The short Prayer of Manasseh, a wicked king who repents and confesses his sins while held captive in Babylon, was only preserved in Greek and Syriac.
Apocryphic literature, made up of books dealing with visions and revelations, constitutes a major genre of the same period. Numerous apocalytic books, ascribed to biblical figures, are included in the Pseudepigrapha. Enoch plays a major role, the two apocalyptic revelations attributed to him being known by the languages in which they were preserved. The Ethiopic Book of Enoch (also known as I Enoch) comprises a number of works written at different periods. Parts of it were written before the Hasmonean era and some fragments of the book in Aramaic have been found at Qumran. This Book of Enoch includes revelations concerning the Day of Judgment, a description of the Messiah, other revelations of Sheol, the Garden of Eden, and the heavens, a symbolic description of Jewish history, and astrological material. The Slavonic Book of Enoch is also an apocalyptic work, describing the hero's ascent through the seven heavens and the lives of his descendants until the Flood. It includes cosmological speculations, moral guidance, and prophecies concerning the future. The Slavonic Enoch is also composed of diverse elements, and scholars have not reached any conclusions as to its date and provenance. Another such work, which survived in a (Slavonic) Christian form, is the Apocalypse of Abraham. Its Jewish original, describing revelations to Abraham by the angel Jehoel, was evidently written in Hebrew after the destruction of the Second Temple. Similarly, the apocalyptic Ii Esdras (also known as IV Ezra) seems to have been composed in Erets Israel after 70 CE. Baruch is the supposed author of two apocalyptic works, the Syriac (II) Baruch and the Ethiopic (III) Baruch, which are among the latest of the apocryphal works.
The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha were written over a period of 400 years (300 BCE-100 CE). The oldest books date from the end of the Persian era while the last of these works postdate the Second Temple's destruction. Apocryphal literature reflects a wide range of thought during the Second Temple era in two of the largest Jewish centers, Erets Israel and Egypt. Various philosophical streams and religious views are represented and, in a number of the oldest works, a Persian influence is unmistakable. Others betray a Hellenistic influence, some bearing the imprint of Greek (primarily Stoic) philosophy. Most books of the Apocrypha are concerned with the Jewish people and ignore sectarian disputes. A major trend, originating in Egypt, was toward apologetics with a non-Jewish public in mind.
By contrast a number of the pseudepigraphical works show evidence of sectarianism, particularly in Enoch and in the Book of Jubilees, where there are references to a (solar) Calendar differing from the (lunar) one used in mainstream Judaism. The numerous apocalyptic books in the Pseudepigrapha must have originated among circles that believed in the continuity of Divine revelation. The fact that these apocalypses are associated with biblical figures indicates an attempt by those circles to gain Scriptural legitimacy for their writings.
The apocryphal books were not accepted by the rabbis and were therefore preserved only in the Christian churches or in the libraries of the Dead Sea Sect. The one exception is Ben Sira, which is quoted in the Talmud. It appears that the sages were mainly averse to apocalyptic literature, as may be seen from their warnings against reading "external books" or searching for hidden meanings (San. 10:1) and from their negative comments about Enoch. Nevertheless, many of the stories and motifs found both in the Apocrypha and in the Pseudepigrapha also recur in the Talmud and Midrash. Pirké De-Rabbi Eliezer, a late Midrash dating from the era of the Muslim conquest, includes a good deal of material that stems from the Apocrypha while the ancient mystical Hekhalot literature develops apocalyptic motifs of similar origin. This literature grants an important role to Enoch, hero of the pseudepigraphal revelations. Especially popular during the Middle Ages was Megillat Antiochus, the Scroll of Antiochus (or of the Hasmoneans) dating from geonic times, which drew from I Maccabees and was often read on ḥanukkah. Since the Wisdom of Ben Sira and the Testament of Levi were unearthed in the Cairo Genizah, it is clear that a number of apocryphal works were preserved among the Jews for a considerable period of time.
Throughout the Middle Ages, Jewish scholars maintained an interest in the apocryphal works which had been preserved in other languages and translated them into Hebrew. The author of Sefer Yosippon (Pseudo-Josephus), written in tenth-century Italy (though partly of earlier date) utilized apocryphal works included in the Latin Vulgate. Midrash Va-Yissa'U, a medieval reworking of the stories found in the Testament of Judah and the Book of Jubilees, is based on a translation from Greek or Latin. Medieval Hebrew versions of Judith and Tobit could also be found. Quotations from the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs are included in Genesls Rabbati, a work ascribed to R. Moses ha-Darshan. During the Renaissance, Azariah dei Rossi promoted Jewish scholarly interest in the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha by translating the Letter of Aristeas into Hebrew. Since the Emancipation era, many such works have been published in Hebrew versions.
