apple

Dictionary: ap·ple   (ăp'əl)

1. 1. A deciduous Eurasian tree (Malus pumila) having alternate simple leaves and white or pink flowers.
   2. The firm, edible, usually rounded fruit of this tree.
2. 1. Any of several other plants, especially those with fruits suggestive of the apple, such as the crab apple or custard apple.
   2. The fruit of any of these plants.

apple of (one's) eye

1. One that is treasured: Her grandson is the apple of her eye.

[Middle English appel, from Old English æppel.]

Apples (genus Malus) belong to the family Rosaceae. There are about 30 Malus species in the North Temperate Zone. The fruits of most species are edible. More apples are consumed than any other temperate-zone tree fruit. Apples are eaten fresh, processed into jellies or preserves, cooked in pies and pastries, or made into sauces. Apple juice is drunk fresh, or at various stages of fermentation as cider, applejack, or brandy. Apple cider vinegar is popular for use in salads and in many processed foods.

The “European” cultivated apple is now thought to have been derived principally from M. pumila, a Eurasian species which occurs naturally from the Balkans eastward to the Tien Shan of central Asia. In the wild, some forms of M. pumila approach present cultivars in size and quality. Another Asian species, M. sylvestris, whose range extends into western Europe, grows side by side with M. pumila and hybridizes with it in the Caucasus Mountains. Thus M. sylvestris probably also had some genetic input into the cultivated apple.

Wild apples, mainly the edible M. baccata, grow so thickly east of Lake Baikal in Siberia that the region is called Yablonovy Khrebet (“Apple Mountains”).

The success of the Delicious and Golden Delicious cultivars may be laid to the demand for better-quality fresh fruit. Both originated on farms as chance seedlings near the end of the 19th century. In spite of the dominance of such “chance” cultivars, cultivars such as Cortland and Idared that were produced by scientific breeding have begun to achieve prominence. Most of the apple breeding programs under way earlier this century have ceased, but the few remaining ones are now introducing some exciting new cultivars. Many of the new cultivars are of excellent quality and in addition are resistant to the most damaging diseases, such as scab, rust, and fire blight. These cultivars promise to revolutionize apple growing in the future.

The apple is probably the most widely distributed fruit crop in the world, although it ranks behind grapes, bananas, and oranges in total production. There are substantial apple-growing areas on all temperate-zone continents; the United States, Italy, France, and Germany are leading producers.

Apples can be grown as far north as 60° latitude in the maritime climate of northwestern Europe. In North America, apple culture does not extend much above 50° north latitude. Away from the coasts, the buffering effects of the Great Lakes on temperature extremes facilitate heavy apple production in New York, Michigan, and Ontario. Hardier cultivars are continuing to be developed for use in colder regions. Apples can be grown in the tropics at higher elevations where sufficient chilling to break dormancy is available. Cultivars with lower chilling needs are being developed.

The principal apple-growing regions in North America are, in order of importance: the Northwest (Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and British Columbia), the Northeast (New York, New Jersey, New England, Ontario, Quebec, and Nova Scotia), the Cumberland-Shenandoah area (Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, and North Carolina), Michigan, California, the Ohio Basin (Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois), and Colorado.

Apples may be sold fresh immediately, or after a period of storage, or they may be processed into less perishable products such as canned, frozen, or dried slices or chunks for baking, applesauce, apple juice or cider, and vinegar.

Fresh apples may be sold locally at roadside stands or at farmers' markets, or sold in wholesale quantities to supermarkets. Often, large quantities of fruit are traded by cooperatives or independent buyers for sale in distant markets. Thousands of tons of apples are shipped annually from the state of Washington to the Midwest and the East Coast. Apples can be stored for long periods at low temperatures under controlled atmosphere (CA storage), so that fresh fruits are now available year round.

There is a large international trade in apples, particularly in Europe between the large producing countries of France and Italy and the net-importing countries of Germany, Britain, and Scandinavia, and from the United States to Canada. Apples grown in the Southern Hemisphere (Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and Argentina) are shipped in large quantities to western Europe during the northern winter. See also Fruit, tree; Rosales.

(Apple Inc., Cupertino, CA, www.apple.com) A manufacturer of computers and consumer electronics, Apple is the industry's most fabled story. Founded in a garage by Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs and guided by Mike Markkula, Apple blazed the trails for the personal computer industry. Apple was formed on April Fool's Day in 1976. After introducing the Apple I at the Palo Alto Homebrew Computer Club, 10 retail stores were selling them by the end of the year.

In 1977, the Apple II was introduced, a fully-assembled computer with 4K RAM for $1,298. Its open architecture encouraged third-party vendors to build plug-in hardware enhancements. This, plus sound and color graphics, caused Apple IIs to become the most widely used computer in the home and classroom. They were also used in business primarily for the innovative VisiCalc software that was launched on it.

In 1983, Apple introduced the Lisa, the forerunner of the Macintosh. Lisa was aimed at the corporate market, but was soon dropped in favor of the Mac. As a graphics-based machine, the Mac was successful as a low-cost desktop publishing system. Although praised for its ease of use, its slow speed, small monochrome screen and closed architecture didn't excite corporate buyers. But, things were to change.

In 1987, the Mac II offered higher speed, larger screens in color and traditional cabinetry that accepted third-party add-in cards. Numerous models were offered and widely accepted. In 1991, Apple surprised the industry by announcing an alliance with IBM to form several companies that would develop hardware and software together. All these eventually folded back into Apple and IBM, but the major product of the alliance was the PowerPC chip (see Apple-IBM alliance). In 1994, Apple came out with its first PowerPC-based Power Macs, which proved very popular. Its PowerBook laptops were an instant success, and all subsequent models departed from the original Motorola 68K architecture to the PowerPC.

Apple has stood alone in a sea of IBM and IBM-compatible PCs for more than a decade and a half. It has watched its graphical interface copied more with each incarnation of Windows and watched its market share drop simultaneously. In late 1994, Apple began to license its OS to system vendors in order to create a Macintosh clone industry, which pundits had been suggesting for years. However, a couple of years later, that was discontinued.

In 1997, Apple acquired NeXT Computer, which brought Steve Jobs back to the company he founded and gave it a raft of object-oriented development tools, parts of which filtered down into the Mac OS X operating system.

In 1998, Apple introduced the iMac, a low-priced Internet-ready Mac that was the first personal computer without a floppy disk. Self-contained in one unit like the original Mac, Apple sold 800,000 iMacs in a year, making it the fastest-selling computer in its history. Apple's subsequent models, including the G4 Cube and Titanium portable, were in a class by themselves. Apple continues to offer attractive alternatives to the Windows-based PC.

In 2001, Apple launched the iPod, one of the most successful consumer electonics products in history. Setting the bar for portable music players, every competing product is measured against the iPod's ease of use and capabilities. In 2007, Apple announced the iPhone, a combination iPod, phone and Internet appliance that is available in the U.S. exclusively from AT&T (formerly Cingular) for two years.

The Two Steves

The Apple I

A Quarter Century Later

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Fruit of the tree Malus sylvestris and its many cultivars and hybrids; there are more than 2000 varieties in the British National Fruit Collection. First apple seeds in North America believed to have been planted in 1629 in Massachussetts Bay by Gov. John Endecott. Crab apples are grown mainly for decoration, and for pollination of fruit-bearing trees, although the sour fruit can be used for making jelly. Cooking apples are generally sourer varieties than dessert apples, and normally have flesh which crumbles on cooking; cider apples are sour varieties especially suited to the making of cider. One apple (110 g) provides 2.2 g of dietary fibre and supplies 40 kcal (165 kJ).

Grown in temperate zones throughout the world and cultivated for at least 3,000 years, apple varieties now number well into the thousands. Apples range in color from lemony yellow to bright yellow-green to crimson red. Their textures range from tender to crisp, their flavors from sweet to tart and from simple to complex. They're available year-round but are at their best in the autumn when newly harvested. Buy firm, well-colored apples with a fresh (never musty) fragrance. The skins should be smooth and free of bruises and gouges. scald (a dry, tan- or brown-colored area on the skin of an apple) doesn't usually affect its flavor. Apples come 2 to 4 per pound, depending on size. Store apples in a cool, dark place. They do well placed in a plastic bag and stored in the refrigerator. Choose apples by how you intend to use them-for eating raw or cooking. All-purpose apples, good for eating raw as well as for cooking include the following: Baldwin-red skin streaked with yellow, a mildly sweet-tart flavor and fairly crisp texture; Braeburn-mottled red and yellow skin and crisp, sweet-tart flesh; Cortland-smooth, shiny red skin and juicy, crisp, sweet-tart flesh that resists browning; Criterion-bright red skin with green highlights and a slightly tart, juicy flesh; Fuji-green to yellow undercolor blushed with red and a fragrantly sweet, crisp and juicy flesh; Gala-red mottled with yellow, sweet and slightly spicy, crisp and juicy; Golden Delicious-yellow to yellow-green skin and a sweet, crisp, juicy flesh that resists browning (but fruit grown in the western U.S. Can be bland); Granny Smith-freckled green skin and sweetly tart, moderately juicy flesh; Gravenstein-green skin streaked with red, and a crisp, juicy, sweetly tart flesh; Jonagold-cross between Golden Delicious and Jonathan, with a mottled red and yellow skin and moderately crispy, very juicy, sweet-tart flesh; Jonathan-bright red skin, with a spicy fragrance and juicy, sweet-tart flavor (not good for baking whole); Lady Apple-skin color ranging from brilliant red to yellow with red blushing, and a sweet-tart flesh; Macoun-red-wine color and a crisp, juicy, sweetly tart flesh; McIntosh-bright red skin sometimes tinged with green, and a medium-crisp, tart-sweet flesh that doesn't hold up to lengthy cooking; Newtown pippin (also simply pippin)-greenish-yellow to yellow skin and a crisp, juicy, slightly tart flesh; Northern Spy-red skin streaked with yellow and a sweet-tart flavor; Pink Lady-pinkish-red skin and crisp, sweetly tart flesh with hints of kiwi and raspberry; Rhode Island Greening-green to yellow-green skin and a sweet-tart flesh that seems to intensify in flavor when cooked, which is why most of the crop is sold for commercial processing (applesauce, pies, and so forth); Stayman Winesap-a cross between the Red Delicious and Winesap with a yellow-striped red skin and juicy, crisp, tart flesh; Winesap-deep red skin, with a juicy, tart, crisp flesh; York Imperial-red skin streaked with yellow and a firm flesh that's tartly sweet. For whole baked apples, the apple of choice is Rome Beauty-deep red skin with some yellow speckling and a firm, mildly sweet flesh. Other good bakers are Braeburn, Gala, Gravenstein and York Imperial. The Red Delicious apple is brilliant red in color, with an elongated shape and five distinctive knobs at its base. It's juicy and sweet but lacks any distinguishing tartness, which makes it okay for eating out of hand but not for cooking. Apples are a good source of fiber and vitamins A and C. They're also rich in the powerful flavonoid quercetin, which acts as an antioxidant and may prevent some cancers and protect the arteries and heart. Whole fruit is better than apple juice, which loses 80 percent of its quercetin during processing. See also candied apple; cashew apple; crabapple; may apple.

Idioms beginning with apple:
apple a day
apple of one's eye
apple-pie order

See also polish the apple; rotten apple; upset the applecart.

For more information on apple, visit Britannica.com.

The pome fruit and tree (Pyrusmalus) bearing this fruit is celebrated in numerous functions in Celtic mythology, legend, and folklore; it is an emblem of fruit-fulness and sometimes a means to immortality. Wands of druids were made from wood either of the yew or of the apple. A name for the Avalon of Arthurian tradition in certain medieval narratives, attributing Welsh origin, is Insula Pomorum, ‘The Isle of Apples’. One gloss of the name for the magical Irish island Emain Ablach is ‘Emain of the Apples’. In the Ulster Cycle the soul of Cú Roí was confined in an apple that lay in the stomach of a salmon which appeared once every seven years. Cúchulainn once gained his escape by following the path of a rolled apple. An apple-tree grew from the grave of the tragic lover Ailinn. In the Irish tale Echtrae Conli [The Adventure of Connla], Connla the son of Conn is fed an apple by a fairy lover [Irish leannán sídhe/sí], which sustains him with food and drink for a month without diminishing; but it also makes him long for the woman and the beautiful country of women to which his lover is enticing him. In the Irish story from the Mythological Cycle, Oidheadh Chlainne Tuireann, the first task given the Children of Tuireann is to retrieve the Apples of the Hesperides (or Hisbernia). Afallennau [Welsh apple trees] is a 12th-century Welsh narrative poem dealing with Myrddin. The Breton pseudosaint Konorin was reborn by means of an apple. Old Irish uball, ubull; Modern Irish ubhal, úll; Scottish Gaelic ubhall; Manx ooyl; Welsh afal; Cornish aval; Breton aval. See also ALLANTIDE; FAIRY TREE.

Picking apples on a clear, crisp, sunny autumn day provides a cornucopia of pleasures. The enjoyment of being outdoors and savoring another harvest has been part of the human experience for centuries. Biting into a crunchy, sweetly flavored apple or quaffing a big glass of fresh cider reminds one why apples are a part of fairy tales and folk history. Remember Snow White and Johnny Appleseed? Apples have sustained humans with beverages—hard and sweet cider—innumerable culinary dishes, winter provisions, and even foodstuffs for hogs and cattle, and they are still an integral part of American culture and commerce. Apple pie is the quintessential American dessert, and bins of fresh apples are present year-round in every supermarket. An apple variety exists for every taste bud, and eating apples has a lot of health benefits, too. They are a good source of antioxidants and fiber, and an individual apple contains about 80 calories, 5 grams of fiber, 6 milligrams of vitamin C, and 170 milligrams of potassium.

Origin of Apples

Botanists theorize that apples originated somewhere in central and southern China. This area is home to around twenty Malus species, whose seeds were gradually spread by birds throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Ornamental crab apples are also descendants of these smaller, bitter-fruited species. It was thought that the edible apple (Malus domestica) evolved as a complex hybrid from a number of these wild apple species. However, Barrie Juniper, emeritus fellow in the Department of Plant Sciences at Oxford University, has suggested that a small population of a single Malus species from the wild forests of the Tian Shan (the Heavenly Mountains) along the border of western China and Kazakhstan is the progenitor of all modern apple cultivars. These Tian Shan forests became isolated by biological and climatic changes about 4.5 million years ago and evolved in isolation. Juniper theorizes that as bears and wild pigs, horses, and donkeys gradually began to occupy the area and to eat the largest and sweetest fruits, they aided in the process of natural selection for larger, sweeter fruit. Because apples do not breed "true to type" from seed, these wild plantings from dispersed seeds gradually contributed to a diversity of apple varieties from this one species. Later, around ten thousand years ago, humans began to travel through the area and also began to eat these fruits and to carry them westward. Juniper and other researchers are studying the remnants of these forests of wild fruit trees and are collecting samples for DNA analysis. These wild fruit trees are a fruit breeder's paradise for genetic material.

Ancient History

By 2500 B.C.E. apples were cultivated throughout northern Mesopotamia and Persia. The walled gardens of Persia included fruit trees for their ornamental beauty as well as for their culinary delights. The ancient Greeks and Romans also cultivated apple orchards, and their wealthy citizens enjoyed apples as part of the dessert course at banquets. The Greeks, well advanced in horticultural knowledge, understood grafting and propagated specific varieties for their orchards. The Greek writer Theophrastos knew that apples would not grow true to type from seeds, writing, "Seedlings of . . . apples produce an inferior kind which is acid instead of sweet . . . and this is why men graft." In the first century C.E. the Roman writer Pliny described over twenty named varieties in his Natural History. Apple orchards were established throughout continental Europe and in Britain as the Romans extended their empire, culture, and crops. An indicator of the importance of the apple in these ancient cultures is its prevalence in Greek and Roman mythology. The Roman goddess Pomona tended her orchards and bestowed gifts of fruit on her favorites as rewards for favorable acts.

After the collapse of the Roman Empire, many of the favorite dessert apple varieties of the day disappeared. Charlemagne's rise to power in 771 brought a measure of peace and prosperity and an increased interest in horticultural pursuits. His Capitulare de Villis (Rules of Land Use) decreed that every city should include apples, cherries, plums, peaches, and pears. Charlemagne also issued an edict that brewers (which included cider makers) should be encouraged to develop their trade. Apple cultivation and varietal development progressed in Europe during the Renaissance. Varieties were selected, named, and propagated, and orchard plantings increased. These improved varieties were included in beautiful displays of fresh fruit at Renaissance banquets, where fresh apples were enjoyed as part of the dessert course.

North American History

Apples have been part of American life from the first arrival of European settlers. One of the first documented orchards in the New World belonged to William Blax-stone, a well-known horticulturalist and clergyman. He planted his orchard around 1625 on the slope of what became Beacon Hill in Boston. Blaxstone, who was described as an eccentric, saddle-trained a bull and distributed apples to his friends on his rides. One of his apples, Sweet Rhode Island Greening, is probably the first named variety from the United States.

Colonial America. A one-to six-acre apple orchard was an important part of farmsteads in seventeenth-and eighteenth-century America. Apples were grown primarily for hard cider, which was the beverage of choice because water was regarded as unsafe. Everyone in the family drank cider, and each family produced twenty to fifty barrels of cider each autumn for its own consumption and to use as barter for needed goods and services. Cider was not considered prime until it had aged over a year. Applejack, made from distilled cider, was even stronger. The first cider mills were built around 1745. Prior to this cider was made by pounding apples in a trough and draining the pomace. By the late eighteenth century cider mills dotted the countryside. In New England one in ten farms had a cider mill.

Cider was also used in cooking apple butter. Sweet cider (the unfermented, freshly pressed juice) was combined with peeled and boiled apples and cooked until the mixture had been reduced to a thick paste through evaporation. It was then put up in earthen jars for later use. Some cider was allowed to become vinegar and was used for food preservation. Apples were also dried for winter preservation. Michel Crèvecoeur, author of Letters from an American Farmer (1782), described drying apple slices on wooden platforms erected on poles. The fruit was spread out on wooden boards, where it was soon covered with "all the bees and wasps and sucking insects of the neighborhood," which he felt accelerated the drying process. The dried apples were used for apple pies and dumplings throughout the year. Peaches and plums were also dried but were considered more of a delicacy and were saved for special occasions. The dried apples, also called schnitz, were stored in bags hung in the attic rafters to keep them dry and away from mice. The Pennsylvania Dutch, German settlers in eastern Pennsylvania, were prodigious apple growers and developed a brisk business in colonial America selling schnitz, apple butter, and cider. A traditional Pennsylvania Dutch apple dish, called schnitz pie, consists of dried apples first cooked in water; then sugar and spices are added to the pot, and finally the mixture is baked in a lidded pie crust. Schnitz and knepp is a dish of ham, potatoes, and dried apples cooked together; dumpling dough is added and cooked briefly right before serving.

After the Revolution, grafting and nurseries became more commonplace. Still, until the mid-nineteenth century most plantings in home orchards were of seedling trees that were not pruned. The fruit was primarily used for cider and fed to hogs. Pork was cheap, and the abundant apples and peaches were an inexpensive way to fatten pigs. Cider was even part of political campaigning and was dispensed freely during voting time. During one election, George Washington's agent is said to have dispensed 3.75 gallons of beer, wine, cider, or rum to every voter.

Insect pests and diseases were not quite as prevalent in colonial times as they later became. Some key fruit pests had not yet made the trip to the New World, and other native insects had not yet discovered apples. Pest-damaged fruit was also accepted as natural and unavoidable. Still-life paintings of fruit from this and earlier eras clearly show insect and disease damage on the fruit. In 1806 Bernard McMahon, in The American Gardener's Calendar, instructed readers to pick the worst of the leaves off the tree and dash the branches with water in dry weather to prevent insect damage from spreading.

Johnny Appleseed, whose real name was John Chapman, was a popular folk character in early nineteenth-century America. Born in Leominster, Massachusetts, in 1774, Johnny Appleseed started seedling apple tree nurseries throughout Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana. Traveling by canoe or on foot, he gave apple seeds from cider mills to any farmer who promised to plant them and take care of them. On his travels he also planted seedling nurseries in clearings. At his death in 1847, he had established apple trees over 100,000 square miles of territory.

Nineteenth-century apple growing. Agricultural settlement of midwestern and western states by European settlers began in the mid-1820s. Home orchards were planted in Washington State by the first European immigrants from the eastern states in the mid-1800s. Commercial orchard plantings did not take hold until the advent of the big irrigation projects in the late nineteenth century. By 1850 five hundred named varieties were cultivated. The seedling nurseries started by Johnny Apple-seed and settlers across the country were the start of unique American varieties like Baldwin, Esopus, Spitzenburg, Green Newton, Jonathan, Hawley, Newton Spitzenburg, Swaar, Winesap, and York Imperial.

The mid-nineteenth century saw changes in American agriculture as urban populations grew and a smaller percentage of people were involved in agriculture. Apple growing was no longer primarily the purview of the self-sufficient homestead. Alcoholic cider fell into disrepute with the spread of the temperance movement, and the cider industry declined. Larger commercial orchards were established for growing and selling fresh apples. The apple industry was affected between 1880 and 1930 by the development of the refrigerated railroad car that allowed fruit growers in the western states to ship fruit east. The development between 1910 and 1920 of refrigerated storage meant that long-keeping winter apples were not as necessary, so fewer varieties were grown by commercial orchards. At the beginning of the twentieth century seven thousand named varieties of apples existed, but five thousand of these varieties were extinct by the beginning of the twenty-first century. Prior to refrigerated storage, apple cultivars grown in small orchards varied from early-season baking apples to winter-keeper types with a thick, waxy skin that would store well in root cellars.

Pest Management

Pesticides were not developed or widely used until the late nineteenth century, when growers began producing fruit more for market and for fresh eating rather than for cider and for home consumption. Orchardists experienced increasing pest damage from codling moth, a larval fruit pest accidentally introduced from Europe by early settlers, and from other pests and diseases. The first arsenical insecticide, Paris green (copper acetoarsenite), was developed in the 1870s to control codling moth. Lead arsenate was developed as an insecticide in 1892. Growers also began using nicotine sulfate to fortify the lead arsenate applications. At first these broad spectrum, toxic pesticides were applied one to three times during a growing season, but the number of applications increased as codling moth became more difficult to control. By 1945 orchardists were using up to seven applications of lead arsenate each season. DDT, developed during World War II, was hailed for its effectiveness against insect pests and low toxicity to humans. Not until later did scientists discover that DDT persisted in the food chain. Still, these new pest controls were not without concerns. DDT successfully controlled codling moth but wiped out natural predators that kept other pests in check, so the number of pests that needed to be controlled greatly increased as the number of pesticides increased.

Public debate over pesticide use grew with the increasing use of pesticides. In 1937 the U.S. Congress directed the U.S. Public Health Service to investigate the possible harmful effects of spray residues on fruits and vegetables. Although the Service's report, finished in 1940, concluded that harmful effects were minimal, the dialog about pesticide use continued, reflected in various scientific studies and public debates through the decades. The 1962 publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson galvanized public opinion about the environmental consequences of pesticide use.

Apple Orchards in the Twenty-First Century

The introduction of integrated pest management in the 1970s placed more emphasis on understanding pest and disease life cycles and pest populations as the basis for pesticide applications instead of touting the benefits of applying sprays on a routine basis. Still, fruit growers must meet the demand for inexpensive, blemish-free fruit in a competitive marketplace. Pesticide use on apples remains higher than on most other crops. Researchers continue to study pest-and disease-monitoring techniques, biological controls, and new targeted pesticides to develop more ecologically based production systems and to lower the pesticide risk for agricultural workers and consumers. Consumer demand for organic fruits and vegetables produced without synthetic pesticides and fertilizers has increased. Organic apple production is growing, particularly in the Northwest, which has fewer insects and diseases than the Northeast.

In the early twenty-first century Washington State produced 50 percent of the apple crop in the United States, followed by New York, California, Michigan, and Pennsylvania. Although over two thousand varieties of apples are grown in the United States, commercial orchards produce about 90 percent of the crop from ten varieties of apples—Red Delicious, Golden Delicious, Granny Smith, Rome, Fuji, McIntosh, Gala, Jonathan, Idared, and Empire. Controlled atmosphere storage, where the oxygen level is decreased and additional nitrogen is introduced into refrigerated storage, means apples can be stored from one season to the next and hold their quality. Approximately 50 percent of the crop is sold for fresh eating; 20 percent is processed for vinegar, cider, juice, jelly, and apple butter; 17 percent is canned as applesauce and pie filling; and 13 percent is exported. Internationally apples are the most widely cultivated tree fruit. Annual world apple production stands at approximately fifty-seven metric tons of apples. China is now the world's largest producer of apples, followed by the United States, Turkey, Italy, Germany, France, Iran, Poland, Argentina, and India.

Horticultural Requirements

Commercial apple orchards require skilled management. Apples are adaptable but grow best in cool temperate climates from about 35 to 50 degrees latitude. Most apple varieties require full sun, good soil drainage, and a chilling period (1,000 to 1,600 hours of temperatures below 45°F) and 120 to 180 frost-free days to produce a crop. Fruit quality is highest when day temperatures are warm but nights are cool. Orchardists favor trees that have been propagated on size-controlling rootstocks. These root-stocks produce smaller trees that can be planted more intensively, yield more per acre, and bear fruit earlier (two to four years) than full-sized standard rootstocks. Trees are pruned annually, and pests, diseases, soil fertility, and water needs are monitored to maximize fruit quality, size, and color. Growers must also pay attention to market demands and price fluctuations to maintain viable businesses in a highly competitive international arena.

One option for smaller family farm operations is to focus on direct marketing to the consumer. Roadside marketing, farm markets, and pick-your-own operations can emphasize locally grown, unique apple varieties. Large-scale supermarkets tend to carry only a few varieties, while the several thousand apple varieties once grown in the United States are unknown to many consumers. Apple aficionados can search out regional favorites like Smokehouse, a fine, old Delaware and Pennsylvania apple from 1837; Grime Golden, the rich, distinctive apple from the mountains of West Virginia; or Blue Permain, a large, dark purplish-red fruit that will keep all winter in a root cellar. The best baking apples are found at farmer's markets. The tart Lodi ripens early in the season, Fallawater is an old favorite for both baking and eating, and the yellow-fleshed Smokehouse is juicy and firm for pies.

Preserving the rich heritage and genetic diversity of these varieties is a concern of the Seed Savers Exchange, a nonprofit organization devoted to saving heirloom varieties of vegetables and fruits. The organization maintains a historic orchard of seven hundred apple varieties at its Heritage Farm in Decorah, Iowa, and aims to obtain cuttings of all existing nineteenth-century apples. The U.S. Department of Agriculture also maintains an apple germ plasm collection of more than three thousand varieties in orchard plantings or in tissue culture storage. These collections offer genetic characteristics, such as insect and disease resistance, flavor, fruit size, and cold hardiness, that are important in breeding new apple cultivars.

Home Gardening

The general perception among gardeners is that apple growing is too complicated and is best left to experts. Backyard apple-growing enthusiasts know that, while apple growing does take an investment of time and knowledge, it really is not difficult. Some homework will determine the varieties and size-controlling rootstocks that thrive in an area. Local agricultural extension agents are good resources for information on which pests and diseases might present problems. The North American Fruit Explorers (NAFEX) is a network of fruit-growing enthusiasts who publish a quarterly journal of helpful varietal and growing information. Disease-resistant varieties, such as Liberty, Redfree, Gold Rush, and William's Pride, are an absolute boon for backyard orchardists. Gardeners can combine the disease-resistant varieties with insect-trapping techniques, like the apple maggot trap, which is a red apple-sized sphere coated with sticky tanglefoot to attract apple maggots, and kaolin clay, a fine clay particle spray material, to produce a good-quality apple without inundating a backyard with pesticide materials. Harvesting a basket of crisp, delicious apples from a backyard orchard should be on every gardener's wish list.

Bibliography

Childers, Norman Franklin. Modern Fruit Science. Gainesville, Fla.: Horticultural Publications, 1983.

Fegley, H. Winslow. Farming, Always Farming. Birdsboro, Pa.: Pennsylvania German Society, 1987.

Fletcher, S. W. Pennsylvania Agriculture and Country Life. Volume 1: 1640–1840. Harrisburg, Pa.: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1950.

Hedrick, U. P. A History of Horticulture in America to 1860. Portland, Ore.: Timber Press, 1988.

Janson, H. Frederic. Pomona's Harvest: An Illustrated Chronicle ofAntiquarian Fruit Literature. Portland, Ore.: Timber Press, 1996.

Long, Amos, Jr. The Pennsylvania German Family Farm. Breinigsville, Pa.: Pennsylvania German Society, 1972.

McMahon, Bernard. The American Gardener's Calendar. Charlottesville, Va.: Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation, 1997. Facsmile edition of the 1806 work.

Morgan, Joan, and Alison Richards. The Book of Apples. London: Ebury Press, 1993.

Price, Eluned. "East of Eden." The Garden 126, no. 6 ( June 2001): 456–459.

Tannahill, Reay. Food in History. New York: Stein and Day, 1973.

Thuente, Joanne. Fruit, Berry, and Nut Inventory. Edited by Kent Whealy. 3d ed. Decorah, Iowa: Seed Savers Exchange, 2001.

Upshall, W. H., ed. History of Fruit Growing and Handling inUnited States of America and Canada 1860–1972. University Park, Pa.: American Pomological Society, 1976.

Watson, Ben. Cider, Hard and Sweet. Woodstock, Vt.: Countryman Press, 1999.

—Sarah Wolfgang Heffner

To dream of bountiful apple trees traditionally signifies good fortune and the realization of the fruits of endeavor. Alternatively, rotten apples, or apple cores, may mean that what the dreamer is striving for is not fulfilling, and perhaps, even harmful.

For other uses, see Apple (disambiguation).

"Apple Blossom" redirects here. For other uses, see Apple Blossom (disambiguation).

Apple
Blossoms, fruits, and leaves of the apple tree (Malus domestica)
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae Division: Magnoliophyta Class: Magnoliopsida Order: Rosales Family: Rosaceae Subfamily: Maloideae Tribe: Maleae Genus: Malus Species: M. domestica
Binomial name
Malus domestica Borkh.

The apple is the pomaceous fruit of the apple tree, species Malus domestica in the rose family Rosaceae. It is one of the most widely cultivated tree fruits. The tree is small and deciduous, reaching 3 to 12 metres (9.8 to 39 ft) tall, with a broad, often densely twiggy crown.^[1] The leaves are alternately arranged simple ovals 5 to 12 cm long and 3–6 centimetres (1.2–2.4 in) broad on a 2 to 5 centimetres (0.79 to 2.0 in) petiole with an acute tip, serrated margin and a slightly downy underside. Blossoms are produced in spring simultaneously with the budding of the leaves. The flowers are white with a pink tinge that gradually fades, five petaled, and 2.5 to 3.5 centimetres (0.98 to 1.4 in) in diameter. The fruit matures in autumn, and is typically 5 to 9 centimetres (2.0 to 3.5 in) diameter. The center of the fruit contains five carpels arranged in a five-point star, each carpel containing one to three seeds.^[1]

The tree originated from Central Asia, where its wild ancestor is still found today. There are more than 7,500 known cultivars of apples resulting in range of desired characteristics. Cultivars vary in their yield and the ultimate size of the tree, even when grown on the same rootstock.^[2]

At least 55 million tonnes of apples were grown worldwide in 2005, with a value of about $10 billion. China produced about 35% of this total.^[3] The United States is the second leading producer, with more than 7.5% of the world production. Turkey, France, Italy, and Iran are also among the leading apple exporters.

Contents 1 Botanical information 2 History 3 Cultural aspects 3.1 Germanic paganism 3.2 Greek mythology 3.3 Christianity 4 Apple cultivars 5 Apple production 5.1 Apple breeding 5.2 Pollination 5.3 Maturation and harvest 5.4 Storage 5.5 Pests and diseases 6 Commerce 7 Human consumption 7.1 Fallen apples 8 Health benefits 9 References 10 External links

Botanical information

Wild Malus sieversii apple in Kazakhstan

Main article: Malus sieversii

See also: List of Lepidoptera that feed on apple trees and Fruit tree propagation

The wild ancestors of Malus domestica are Malus sieversii, which is found growing wild in the mountains of Central Asia in southern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Xinjiang, China^[4], and possibly also Malus sylvestris.^[5]

History

See also: Herefordshire Pomona

The center of diversity of the genus Malus is the eastern Turkey. The apple tree was perhaps the earliest tree to be cultivated,^[6] and its fruits have been improved through selection over thousands of years. Alexander the Great is credited with finding dwarfed apples in Asia Minor in 300 BCE;^[1] those he brought back to Macedonia might have been the progenitors of dwarfing root stocks. Winter apples, picked in late autumn and stored just above freezing, have been an important food in Asia and Europe for millennia, as well as in Argentina and in the United States since the arrival of Europeans.^[6] Apples were brought to North America with colonists in the 1600s,^[1] and the first apple orchard on the North American continent was said to be near Boston in 1625. In the 1900s, irrigation projects in Washington state began and allowed the development of the multi-billion dollar fruit industry, of which the apple is the leading species.^[1]

Cultural aspects

Main article: Apple (symbolism)

Germanic paganism

"Brita as Iduna" (1901) by Carl Larsson.

In Norse mythology, the goddess Iðunn is portrayed in the Prose Edda (written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson) as providing apples to the gods that give them eternal youthfulness. English scholar H. R. Ellis Davidson links apples to religious practices in Germanic paganism, from which Norse paganism developed. She points out that buckets of apples were found in the Oseberg ship burial site in Norway and that fruit and nuts (Iðunn having been described as being transformed into a nut in Skáldskaparmál) have been found in the early graves of the Germanic peoples in England and elsewhere on the continent of Europe which may have had a symbolic meaning, and that nuts are still a recognized symbol of fertility in Southwest England.^[7]

Davidson notes a connection between apples and the Vanir, a tribe of gods associated with fertility in Norse mythology, citing an instance of eleven "golden apples" being given to woo the beautiful Gerðr by Skírnir, who was acting as messenger for the major Vanir god Freyr in stanzas 19 and 20 of Skírnismál. Davidson also notes a further connection between fertility and apples in Norse mythology in chapter 2 of the Völsunga saga when the major goddess Frigg sends King Rerir an apple after he prays to Odin for a child, Frigg's messenger (in the guise of a crow) drops the apple in his lap as he sits atop a mound.^[8] Rerir's wife's consumption of the apple results in a six-year pregnancy and the caesarean section birth of their son - the hero Völsung.^[9]

Further, Davidson points out the "strange" phrase "Apples of Hel" used in an 11th-century poem by the skald Thorbiorn Brúnarson, she states this may imply that the apple was thought of by the skald as the food of the dead. Further, Davidson notes that the potentially Germanic goddess Nehalennia is sometimes depicted with apples and that parallels exist in early Irish stories. Davidson asserts that while cultivation of the apple in Northern Europe extends back to at least the time of the Roman Empire and came to Europe from the Near East, the native varieties of apple trees growing in Northern Europe are small and bitter. Davidson concludes that in the figure of Iðunn "we must have a dim reflection of an old symbol: that of the guardian goddess of the life-giving fruit of the other world."^[7]

Greek mythology

Heracles with the apple of Hesperides

Apples appear in many religious traditions, often as a mystical or forbidden fruit. One of the problems identifying apples in religion, mythology and folktales is that the word "apple" was used as a generic term for all (foreign) fruit, other than berries but including nuts, as late as the 17th century.^[10] For instance, in Greek mythology, the Greek hero Heracles, as a part of his Twelve Labours, was required to travel to the Garden of the Hesperides and pick the golden apples off the Tree of Life growing at its center.^[11][12][13]

The Greek goddess of discord, Eris, became disgruntled after she was excluded from the wedding of Peleus and Thetis.^[14] In retaliation, she tossed a golden apple inscribed Καλλίστη (Kalliste, sometimes transliterated Kallisti, 'For the most beautiful one'), into the wedding party. Three goddesses claimed the apple: Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite. Paris of Troy was appointed to select the recipient. After being bribed by both Hera and Athena, Aphrodite tempted him with the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen of Sparta. He awarded the apple to Aphrodite, thus indirectly causing the Trojan War.

Adam and Eve
Showcasing the apple as a symbol of sin.
Albrecht Dürer, 1507

Atalanta, also of Greek mythology, raced all her suitors in an attempt to avoid marriage. She outran all but Hippomenes (a.k.a. Melanion, a name possibly derived from melon the Greek word for both "apple" and fruit in general),^[12] who defeated her by cunning, not speed. Hippomenes knew that he could not win in a fair race, so he used three golden apples (gifts of Aphrodite, the goddess of love) to distract Atalanta. It took all three apples and all of his speed, but Hippomenes was finally successful, winning the race and Atalanta's hand.^[11]

Christianity

Though the forbidden fruit in the Book of Genesis is not identified, popular Christian tradition has held that it was an apple that Eve coaxed Adam to share with her.^[15] This may have been the result of Renaissance painters adding elements of Greek mythology into biblical scenes. In this case the unnamed fruit of Eden became an apple under the influence of story of the golden apples in the Garden of Hesperides. As a result, in the story of Adam and Eve, the apple became a symbol for knowledge, immortality, temptation, the fall of man into sin, and sin itself. In Latin, the words for "apple" and for "evil" are similar in the singular (malus—apple, malum—evil) and identical in the plural (mala). This may also have influenced the apple becoming interpreted as the biblical "forbidden fruit". The larynx in the human throat has been called Adam's apple because of a notion that it was caused by the forbidden fruit sticking in the throat of Adam.^[15] The apple as symbol of sexual seduction has been used to imply sexuality between men, possibly in an ironic vein.^[15] The idea of an apple being the fruit of the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil with English speakers may have been helped by the fact that apple could also be a generic word for fruit in Old English, the word being used in various commentaries on Genesis.^{[citation needed]}

Apple cultivars

See List of apple cultivars for a listing.

Different kinds of apple cultivars in a supermarket

'Sundown' apple cultivar and its cross section

There are more than 7,500 known cultivars of apples. Different cultivars are available for temperate and subtropical climates. Reputedly the world's biggest collection of apple cultivars is housed at the National Fruit Collection in England.^[2] Most of these cultivars are bred for eating fresh (dessert apples), though some are cultivated specifically for cooking (cooking apples) or producing cider. Cider apples are typically too tart and astringent to eat fresh, but they give the beverage a rich flavour that dessert apples cannot.^[16]

Commercially popular apple cultivars are soft but crisp. Other desired qualities in modern commercial apple breeding are a colourful skin, absence of russeting, ease of shipping, lengthy storage ability, high yields, disease resistance, typical "Red Delicious" apple shape, long stem (to allow pesticides to penetrate the top of the fruit)^{[citation needed]}, and popular flavour.^[2] Modern apples are generally sweeter than older cultivars, as popular tastes in apples have varied over time. Most North Americans and Europeans favour sweet, subacid apples, but tart apples have a strong minority following.^[17] Extremely sweet apples with barely any acid flavour are popular in Asia^[17] and especially India.^[16]

Old cultivars are often oddly shaped, russeted, and have a variety of textures and colours. Some find them to have a better flavour than modern cultivators,^[18] but may have other problems which make them commercially unviable, such as low yield, liability to disease, or poor tolerance for storage or transport. A few old cultivars are still produced on a large scale, but many have been kept alive by home gardeners and farmers that sell directly to local markets. Many unusual and locally important cultivars with their own unique taste and appearance exist; apple conservation campaigns have sprung up around the world to preserve such local cultivars from extinction. In the United Kingdom old cultivars such as Cox's Orange Pippin and Egremont Russet are still commercially important even though by modern standards they are low yielding and disease prone.^[1]

Apple production

Apple breeding

Apple blossom from an old Ayrshire variety

Like most perennial fruits, apples ordinarily propagate asexually by grafting. Seedling apples are an example of "Extreme heterozygotes", in that rather than inheriting DNA from their parents to create a new apple with those characteristics, they are instead different from their parents, sometimes radically.^[19] Most new apple cultivars originate as seedlings, which either arise by chance or are bred by deliberately crossing cultivars with promising characteristics.^[20] The words 'seedling', 'pippin', and 'kernel' in the name of an apple cultivar suggest that it originated as a seedling. Apples can also form bud sports (mutations on a single branch). Some bud sports turn out to be improved strains of the parent cultivar. Some differ sufficiently from the parent tree to be considered new cultivars.^[21]

Breeders can produce more rigid apples through crossing.^[22] For example, the Excelsior Experiment Station of the University of Minnesota has, since the 1930s, introduced a steady progression of important hardy apples that are widely grown, both commercially and by backyard orchardists, throughout Minnesota and Wisconsin. Its most important introductions have included 'Haralson' (which is the most widely cultivated apple in Minnesota), 'Wealthy', 'Honeygold', and 'Honeycrisp'.

Apples have been acclimatized in Ecuador at very high altitudes, where they provide crops twice per year because of constant temperate conditions in a whole year.^[23]

Pollination

See also: Fruit tree pollination

Apple tree in flower

Orchard mason bee on apple bloom, British Columbia, Canada

Apples are self-incompatible; they must cross-pollinate to develop fruit. During the flowering each season, apple growers usually provide pollinators to carry the pollen. Honeybee hives are most commonly used. Orchard mason bees are also used as supplemental pollinators in commercial orchards. Bumble bee queens are sometimes present in orchards, but not usually in enough quantity to be significant pollinators.^[21]

There are four to seven pollination groups in apples depending on climate:

• Group A – Early flowering, May 1 to 3 in England (Gravenstein, Red Astrachan)
• Group B – May 4 to 7 (Idared, McIntosh)
• Group C – Mid-season flowering, May 8 to 11 (Granny Smith, Cox's Orange Pippin)
• Group D – Mid/Late season flowering, May 12 to 15 (Golden Delicious, Calville blanc d'hiver)
• Group E – Late flowering, May 16 to 18 (Braeburn, Reinette d'Orléans)
• Group F – May 19 to 23 (Suntan)
• Group H – May 24 to 28 (Court-Pendu Gris) (also called Court-Pendu plat)

One cultivar can be pollinated by a compatible cultivar from the same group or close (A with A, or A with B, but not A with C or D).^[24]

Varieties are sometimes classed as to the day of peak bloom in the average 30 day blossom period, with pollinizers selected from varieties within a 6 day overlap period.

Maturation and harvest

See also: Apple picking and Pruning fruit trees

Cultivars vary in their yield and the ultimate size of the tree, even when grown on the same rootstock. Some cultivars, if left unpruned, will grow very large, which allows them to bear much more fruit, but makes harvesting very difficult. Mature trees typically bear 40–200 kilograms (88–440 lb) of apples each year, though productivity can be close to zero in poor years. Apples are harvested using three-point ladders that are designed to fit amongst the branches. Dwarf trees will bear about 10–80 kilograms (22–180 lb) of fruit per year.^[21]

Storage

Commercially, apples can be stored for some months in controlled-atmosphere chambers to delay ethylene-induced onset of ripening. Ripening begins when the fruit is removed.^[25] For home storage, most varieties of apple can be stored for approximately two weeks, when kept at the coolest part of the refrigerator (i.e. below 5°C). Some types of apple, including the Granny Smith and Fuji, have an even longer shelf life.^[26]

Pests and diseases

Leaves with significant insect damage

Main article: List of apple diseases

The trees are susceptible to a number of fungal and bacterial diseases and insect pests. Many commercial orchards pursue an aggressive program of chemical sprays to maintain high fruit quality, tree health, and high yields. A trend in orchard management is the use of organic methods. These use a less aggressive and direct methods of conventional farming. Instead of spraying potent chemicals, often shown to be potentially dangerous and maleficent to the tree in the long run, organic methods include encouraging or discouraging certain cycles and pests. To control a specific pest, organic growers might encourage the prosperity of its natural predator instead of outright killing it, and with it the natural biochemistry around the tree. Organic apples generally have the same or greater taste than conventionally grown apples, with reduced cosmetic appearances.^[27]

A wide range of pests and diseases can affect the plant; three of the more common diseases/pests are mildew, aphids and apple scab.

• Mildew: which is characterized by light grey powdery patches appearing on the leaves, shoots and flowers, normally in spring. The flowers will turn a creamy yellow colour and will not develop correctly. This can be treated in a manner not dissimilar from treating Botrytis; eliminating the conditions which caused the disease in the first place and burning the infected plants are among the recommended actions to take.^[28][28]

Feeding aphids

• Aphids: There are five species of aphids commonly found on apples: apple grain aphid, rosy apple aphid, apple aphid, spirea aphid and the woolly apple aphid. The aphid species can be identified by their colour, the time of year when they are present and by differences in the cornicles, which are small paired projections from the rear of aphids.^[28] Aphids feed on foliage using needle like mouth parts to suck out plant juices. When present in high numbers, certain species may reduce tree growth and vigor.^[29]
• Apple scab: Symptoms of Scab are olive-green or brown blotches on the leaves.^[30] The blotches turn more brown as time progresses. Then brown scabs on the fruit (see apple picture on the left).^[28] The diseased leaves will fall early and the fruit will become increasingly covered in scabs - eventually the fruit skin will crack. Although there are chemicals to treat Scab, their use might not be encouraged as they are quite often systematic, which means they are absorbed by the tree, and spread throughout the fruit.^[30]

Among the most serious disease problems are fireblight, a bacterial disease; and Gymnosporangium rust, and black spot, two fungal diseases.^[29]

Young apple trees are also prone to mammal pests like mice and deer, which feed on the soft bark of the trees, especially in winter.

Commerce

At least 55 million tonnes of apples were grown worldwide in 2005, with a value of about $10 billion. China produced about two-fifths of this total.^[31] United States is the second leading producer, with more than 7.5% of the world production.^[20]

In the United States, more than 60% of all the apples sold commercially are grown in Washington state.^[32] Imported apples from New Zealand and other more temperate areas are competing with US production and increasing each year.^[31]

Most of Australia's apple production is for domestic consumption. Imports from New Zealand have been disallowed under quarantine regulations for fire blight since 1921.^[33]

The largest exporters of apples in 2006 were China, Chile, Italy, France and the U.S., while the biggest importers in the same year were Russia, Germany, the UK and the Netherlands.^[34]

Top Ten Apple Producers — 11 June 2008
Country	Production (Tonnes)	Footnote
People's Republic of China	27507000	F
United States	4237730
Iran	2660000	F
Turkey	2266437
Russia	2211000	F
Italy	2072500
India	2001400
France	1800000	F
Chile	1390000	F
Argentina	1300000	F
World	64255520	A
No symbol = official figure, F = FAO estimate, A = Aggregate (may include official, semi-official, or estimates); Source: FAO

Human consumption

See also: Cooking apple and Cider apple

Apples can be canned, juiced, and optionally fermented to produce apple juice, cider, ciderkin, vinegar, and pectin. Distilled apple cider produces the spirits applejack and Calvados. Apple wine can also be made.^[35]

Apples are an important ingredient in many desserts, such as apple pie, apple crumble, apple crisp and apple cake. They are often eaten baked or stewed, and they can also be dried and eaten or re-constituted (soaked in water, alcohol or some other liquid) for later use. Puréed apples are generally known as apple sauce. Apples are also made into apple butter and apple jelly. They are also used (cooked) in meat dishes.

• In the UK, a toffee apple is a traditional confection made by coating an apple in hot toffee and allowing it to cool. Similar treats in the US are candy apples (coated in a hard shell of crystallised sugar syrup), and caramel apples, coated with cooled caramel.
• Apples are eaten with honey at the Jewish New Year of Rosh Hashanah to symbolize a sweet new year.^[35]
• Farms with apple orchards may open them to the public, so consumers may themselves pick the apples they will buy.^[35]

Sliced apples turn brown with exposure to air due to the conversion of natural phenolic substances into melanin upon exposure to oxygen.^[36] Different cultivars differ in their propensity to brown after slicing. Sliced fruit can be treated with acidulated water to prevent this effect.^[36]

Organic apples are commonly produced in the United States.^[37] Organic production is difficult in Europe, though a few orchards have done so with commercial success,^[37] using disease-resistant cultivars and the very best cultural controls. The latest tool in the organic repertoire is a spray of a light coating of kaolin clay, which forms a physical barrier to some pests, and also helps prevent apple sun scald.^[21][37]

Fallen apples

Eating fallen apples (known in the UK as 'windfalls'), rather than picking directly from the tree, is generally safe. There may be a risk of food poisoning if the orchard is also the area of keeping cattle or other animals, which may contaminate the apples with feces. Still, the risk may be significantly higher if the apples are used to make home-made (unpasteurized) cider or juice, thus letting E. coli multiply.^[38]

On the other hand, if the apples are eaten unprocessed, and kept free from risk of contamination with animal feces, then eating fallen apples are generally safe, even if there is some general decay or worms in them. Still, they may be submerged in water with salt added, which kills the worms.^[39] Apparent molds may be largely removed by putting in water with some vinegar added,^[39] but if they are of a large quantity then there might be mold or mold products left to evoke mold health issues such as allergic reactions and respiratory problems.

Health benefits

Apples, with skin (edible parts) Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 50 kcal   220 kJ
Carbohydrates     13.81 g - Sugars  10.39 g - Dietary fiber  2.4 g   Fat 0.17 g Protein 0.26 g Vitamin A equiv.  3 μg  0% Thiamine (Vit. B1)  0.017 mg   1% Riboflavin (Vit. B2)  0.026 mg   2% Niacin (Vit. B3)  0.091 mg   1% Pantothenic acid (B5)  0.061 mg  1% Vitamin B6  0.041 mg 3% Folate (Vit. B9)  3 μg  1% Vitamin C  4.6 mg 8% Calcium  6 mg 1% Iron  0.12 mg 1% Magnesium  5 mg 1%  Phosphorus  11 mg 2% Potassium  107 mg   2% Zinc  0.04 mg 0%
Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient database

Potential health benefits of apple consumption.^{[40][41][42] [43]}

The proverb "An apple a day keeps the doctor away," addressing the health effects of the fruit, dates from 19th century Wales.^[44] Research suggests that apples may reduce the risk of colon cancer, prostate cancer and lung cancer.^[45] Compared to many other fruits and vegetables, apples contain relatively low amounts of Vitamin C as well as several other antioxidant compounds.^[36] The fiber content, while less than in most other fruits, helps regulate bowel movements and may thus reduce the risk of colon cancer. They may also help with heart disease,^[46] weight loss,^[46] and controlling cholesterol,^[46] as they do not have any cholesterol, have fiber, which reduces cholesterol by preventing reabsorption, and are bulky for their caloric content like most fruits and vegetables.^[46][47]

There is evidence that in vitro apples possess phenolic compounds which may be cancer-protective and demonstrate antioxidant activity.^[48] The predominant phenolic phytochemicals in apples are quercetin, epicatechin, and procyanidin B2.^[49]

Apple juice concentrate has been found to increase the production of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in mice, providing a potential mechanism for the "prevent[ion of] the decline in cognitive performance that accompanies dietary and genetic deficiencies and aging." Others studies have shown an "alleviat[ion of] oxidative damage and cognitive decline" in mice after the administration of apple juice.^[50]

The seeds are mildly poisonous, containing a small amount of amygdalin, a cyanogenic glycoside; usually not enough to be dangerous to humans, but it can deter birds.^[51]

A recent study released by the FDA has stated that a chemical contained in the skin of most types of apples is now known to cause cancer in laboratory animals.^[52]

References

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3. ^ "Apple". Jinxiang High Garlics Co., Ltd. http://www.higarlics.com/newEbiz1/EbizPortalFG/portal/html/ProgramShow3.html?ProgramShow_ProgramID=c373e9167239ed628ffe0a538dcfe845. Retrieved on 2008-08-18. 
4. ^ Lauri, Pierre-éric; Karen Maguylo, Catherine Trottier (2006). "Architecture and size relations: an essay on the apple (Malus x domestica, Rosaceae) tree". American Journal of Botan (Botanical Society of America, Inc.) (93): 357–368. 
5. ^ Coart, E., Van Glabeke, S., De Loose, M., Larsen, A.S., Roldán-Ruiz, I. 2006. Chloroplast diversity in the genus Malus: new insights into the relationship between the European wild apple (Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill.) and the domesticated apple (Malus domestica Borkh.). Mol. Ecol. 15(8): 2171-82.
6. ^ ^{a b} "An apple a day keeps the doctor away". vegparadise.com. http://www.vegparadise.com/highestperch39.html. Retrieved on 27 January 2008. 
7. ^ ^{a b} Ellis Davidson, H. R. (1965) Gods And Myths Of Northern Europe, page 165 to 166. ISBN 0140136274
8. ^ Ellis Davidson, H. R. (1965) Gods And Myths Of Northern Europe, page 165 to 166. Penguin Books ISBN 0140136274
9. ^ Ellis Davidson, H. R. (1998) Roles of the Northern Goddess, page 146 to 147. Routledge ISBN 0415136105
10. ^ Sauer, Jonathan D. (1993). Historical Geography of Crop Plants: A Select Roster. CRC Press. pp. 109. ISBN 0849389011. 
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12. ^ ^{a b} Ruck, Carl; Blaise Daniel Staples, Clark Heinrich (2001). The Apples of Apollo, Pagan and Christian Mysteries of the Eucharist. Durham: Carolina Academic Press. pp. 64–70. ISBN 0-89089-924-X. 
13. ^ Heinrich, Clark (2002). Magic Mushrooms in Religion and Alchemy. Rochester: Park Street Press. pp. 64–70. ISBN 0-89281-997-9. 
14. ^ Herodotus Histories 6.1.191.
15. ^ ^{a b c} Macrone, Michael; Tom Lulevitch (1998). Brush up your Bible!. Tom Lulevitch. Random House Value. ISBN 0517201895. OCLC 38270894. 
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19. ^ John Lloyd and John Mitchinson. (2006). QI: The Complete First Series - QI Factoids. [DVD]. 2 entertain. 
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22. ^ "Apples". solarnavigator.net. http://www.solarnavigator.net/solar_cola/apples.htm. Retrieved on 22 January 2008. 
23. ^ "Apples in Ecuador". Acta Hort. http://www.actahort.org/books/310/310_17.htm. Retrieved on 2008-07-17. 
24. ^ S. Sansavini (1 July 1986). "The chilling requirement in apple and its role in regulating Time of flowering in spring in cold-Winter Climate". Symposium on Growth Regulators in Fruit Production (International ed.). Acta Horticulturae. pp. 179. ISBN 978-90-66051-82-9. 
25. ^ "Controlled Atmosphere Storage (CA)". Washington State Apple Advertising Commission. http://www.bestapples.com/facts/facts_controlled.shtml. Retrieved on 24 January 2008. 
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28. ^ ^{a b c d} Lowther, Granville; William Worthington. The Encyclopedia of Practical Horticulture: A Reference System of Commercial Horticulture, Covering the Practical and Scientific Phases of Horticulture, with Special Reference to Fruits and Vegetables. The Encyclopedia of horticulture corporation. 
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30. ^ ^{a b} "How To Deal With Scab". GardenAction. http://www.gardenaction.co.uk/techniques/pests/scab.htm. Retrieved on 3 March 2008. 
31. ^ ^{a b} Kristin Churchill. "Chinese apple-juice concentrate exports to United States continue to rise". Great American Publishing. http://www.fruitgrowersnews.com/pages/2004/issue04_10/04_10_ChinaJuice.html. Retrieved on 22 January 2008. 
32. ^ Desmond, Andrew (1994). The World Apple Market. Haworth Press. pp. 144–149. ISBN 1560220414. OCLC 243470452. 
33. ^ Gavin Evans (Tuesday, August 9, 2005). "Fruit ban rankles New Zealand - Australian apple growers say risk of disease justifies barriers". International Herald Tribune. http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/08/08/bloomberg/sxfruit.php. Retrieved on 9 August 2005. 
34. ^ FAO
35. ^ ^{a b c} "Apples". Washington State Apple Advertising Commission. http://www.bestapples.com/varieties/varieties_foodsafety.shtml. Retrieved on 22 January 2008. 
36. ^ ^{a b c} Boyer, Jeanelle; Rui Hai Liu (2004). "Apple phytochemicals and their health benefits". Nutrition journal (Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853-7201 USA: Department of Food Science and Institute of Comparative and Environmental Toxicology) 3: 5. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-3-5. http://www.nutritionj.com/content/3/1/5. 
37. ^ ^{a b c} Ames, Guy (July 2001). "Considerations in organic apple production" (pdf). National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/PDF/omapple.pdf. Retrieved on 24 January 2008. 
38. ^ Food Poisoning and Safety California Poison Control System
39. ^ ^{a b} fallen apples – safe? iVillage Garden Web
40. ^ For decreased risk of colon, prostate and lung cancer: "Nutrition to Reduce Cancer Risk". The Stanford Cancer Center (SCC). http://cancer.stanford.edu/information/nutritionAndCancer/reduceRisk/. Retrieved on 2008-08-18. 
41. ^ For weight loss and cholesterol control: "Apples Keep Your Family Healthy". Washington State Apple Advertising Commission. http://www.bestapples.com/healthy/. Retrieved on 22 January 2008. 
42. ^ Rajeev Sharma. (2005). Improve your health with Apple,Guava,Mango. Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd.. pp. 22. ISBN 8128809245. 
43. ^ For prevention of dementia: Chan A, Graves V, Shea TB (2006). "Apple juice concentrate maintains acetylcholine levels following dietary compromise". Journal of Alzheimer's Disease 9 (3): 287–291. PMID 16914839. 
44. ^ Phillips, John Pavin (1866-02-24). "A Pembrokeshire Proverb". Notes and Queries (Oxford University Press) s3-IX (217): 153. http://nq.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/s3-IX/217/153-d. Retrieved on 2009-02-11. 
45. ^ "Nutrition to Reduce Cancer Risk". The Stanford Cancer Center (SCC). http://cancer.stanford.edu/information/nutritionAndCancer/reduceRisk/. Retrieved on 2008-08-18. 
46. ^ ^{a b c d} "Apples Keep Your Family Healthy". Washington State Apple Advertising Commission. http://www.bestapples.com/healthy/. Retrieved on 22 January 2008. 
47. ^ Rajeev Sharma. (2005). Improve your health with Apple,Guava,Mango. Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd.. pp. 22. ISBN 8128809245. 
48. ^ Lee KW, Lee SJ, Kang NJ, Lee CY, Lee HJ (2004). "Effects of phenolics in Empire apples on hydrogen peroxide-induced inhibition of gap-junctional intercellular communication". Biofactors 21 (1–4): 361–5. doi:10.1002/biof.552210169. PMID 15630226. 
49. ^ Lee KW, Kim YJ, Kim DO, Lee HJ, Lee CY (2003). "Major phenolics in apple and their contribution to the total antioxidant capacity". J. Agric. Food Chem. 51 (22): 6516–6520. doi:10.1021/jf034475w. PMID 14558772. 
50. ^ Chan A, Graves V, Shea TB (2006). "Apple juice concentrate maintains acetylcholine levels following dietary compromise". Journal of Alzheimer's Disease 9 (3): 287–291. PMID 16914839. 
51. ^ Juniper BE, Mabberley DJ (2006). The Story of the Apple. Timber Press. pp. 20. ISBN 0881927848. 
52. ^ http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/tandf/phbi/2007/00000045/00000003/art00011

This article incorporates text from the public domain 1911 edition of The Grocer's Encyclopedia.

External links

Look up apple in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Apple

Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on Apple

• Apples at the Open Directory Project
• Apple Facts from the UK's Institute of Food Research
• Grand Valley State University digital collections- diary of Ohio fruit farmer Theodore Peticolas, 1863

v • d • e Apple cultivars Adams Pearmain · Ambrosia · Antonovka · Baldwin · Ben Davis · Blenheim Orange · Braeburn · Bramley · Brina · Cameo · Cornish Gilliflower · Cortland · Cox's Orange Pippin · Cripps Pink · Discovery · Egremont Russet · Elstar · Empire · Esopus Spitzenburg · Flower of Kent · Fuji · Gala · Ginger Gold · Golden Orange · Golden Delicious · Granny Smith · Gravenstein · Haralson · Honeycrisp · Idared · James Grieve · Jazz · Jonagold · Jonathan · Junaluska · Karmijn de Sonnaville · Knobbed Russet · Macoun · McIntosh · Mutsu · Newtown Pippin · Nickajack · Norfolk Biffin · Northern Spy · Paula Red · Pink Pearl · Pinova · Ralls Genet · Rambo · Red Delicious · Rhode Island Greening · Ribston Pippin · Rome · Roxbury Russet · Rubens (Civni) · Sekai Ichi · Spartan · Summerfree · Zestar

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)

Dansk (Danish)
n. - æble

idioms:

• apple of discord    stridens æble
• apple of one's eye    øjesten

Nederlands (Dutch)
appel

Français (French)
n. - pomme, pommier

idioms:

• apple bee    (US) séance préparatoire à la déshydratation des pommes
• apple brandy    eau-de-vie de pommes
• apple butter    compote de pommes
• apple dowdy    tarte aux pommes
• apple maggot    contamination des pommes (par un insecte)
• apple of discord    (être) la pomme de discorde
• apple of one's eye    (être) comme la prunelle de ses yeux
• apple pandowdy    tarte aux pommes
• apple polisher    (US, fig) brosse à reluire

Deutsch (German)
n. - Apfel

idioms:

• apple bee    eine soziale Versammlung, wo Äpfel auf das Trocknen vorbereitet werden
• apple brandy    Apfelschnaps
• apple butter    Apfelkonfitüre
• apple dowdy    eine Schüssel mit gedeckten Apfelkuchen mit Melasse
• apple maggot    Larve einer Fruchtfliege
• apple of discord    Zankapfel
• apple of one's eye    Augapfel
• apple pandowdy    eine Schüssel mit gedeckten Apfelkuchen mit Melasse
• apple polisher    Speichellecker

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - μήλο, μηλιά

idioms:

• apple of discord    (μυθολ., μτφ.) μήλο της έριδας
• apple of one's eye    κόρη οφθαλμού

Italiano (Italian)
melo, mela

idioms:

• apple of discord    pomo della discordia
• apple of one's eye    pupilla dei propri occhi

Português (Portuguese)
n. - maçã (f) (Bot.)

idioms:

• Adam's apple    pomo-de-adão (m) (Anat.)
• apple of discord    pomo (m) de discórdia
• apple of one's eye    menina (f) dos olhos de alguém, pessoa (f) ou coisa (f) muito querida

Русский (Russian)
яблоко, яблоня

idioms:

• Adam's apple    кадык
• apple of discord    яблоко раздора
• apple of one's eye    зеница ока

Español (Spanish)
n. - manzano, manzana

idioms:

• apple bee    reunión social en la que una cosecha de manzanas se pone a secar
• apple brandy    cognac de manzanas
• apple butter    mermelada de manzanas
• apple dowdy    pastel de manzanas
• apple maggot    gusanillo que habita en la manzana
• apple of discord    manzana de la discordia
• apple of one's eye    niña del ojo, preferido
• apple pandowdy    pastel de manzanas
• apple polisher    lustrador de manzanas, adulador

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - äpple

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
苹果

idioms:

• apple of discord    争端, 祸根
• apple of one's eye    极珍爱之人或物

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 蘋果

idioms:

• apple of discord    爭端, 禍根
• apple of one's eye    極珍愛之人或物

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 사과, 야구공, 대도시

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - リンゴ, リンゴの木, 林檎, 林檎の木

idioms:

• Adam's apple    のどぼとけ
• apple of discord    争いの種, 黄金のリンゴ
• apple of one's eye    瞳, 非常に貴重な物
• apple polisher    胡麻すり, おべっか者
• eating apple    生食用りんご

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) تفاحه, شجرة التفاح‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮תפוח, תפוח-עץ‬

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